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1 



-ITS- 

HlSTORY 
LASSIFICATION and DESCRIPTION 

(ILLUSTRATED) 
BY 

AUTHOR OF 






ITS 

KtlSTORY ILNjy IVIYSTERY 







^1 



'">1AY 1^1894 , 



"THE SOVEEEiaN DRINK OF PLEAStJEB AND OP HEALTH. "-.Krwdj/. 






i^' I 



PHILADELPHIA : 

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR. 

1894. 



tr\ 



\ 



c - 



COPYRIGHTED, 1894, 
BY 

JOSEPH M. WALSH 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 



H'^^ 



TO THE MEMORY OF 

NIR. JOSBPH P. SMITM, 

one of philadelphia's representative 
merchants, and 

God's Noblest Work:, an Honest IVIaini," 

this book is reverently dedicated. 

the author. 



I?»ieEJl^^S.T01«^K", 



'"Tis the progress gains the goal." 

Schiller. 



o o:rvTE^ ivT« . 



Cliaptei- Page 

I. — Eart.y HisTORv Axn IxTRonucTiox . 1-17 

II. — Geographical Distribution . . . 19-31 

III. — Botanical Characteristics and 

Form 33-45 

IV. — Cultivation and Preparation . . 47-101 

V. — Commercial Classification and De- 
scription 103-184 

VI. — Roasting, Glazing and Grinding . 185-197 

VII. — Adulteration and Detection . . 199-222 

VIII. — Testing, Blending and Preparing . 223-247 

IX. — Chemical, Medical and Dietetical 249-280 

X. — World's Production and Consump- 
tion 281-288 



OH[A.F^E>I« I. 



B>A.i«i:^Tr HisToie^y. 



^**HE gigantic extent to which the production and 
I ^ consumption of Coffee has been carried of late 
years, the vast number of hands employed in its 
cultivation and preparation for market, including the 
great quantity of shipping necessary for its transporta- 
tion, and the enormous amount of capital invested in its 
production and trade, naturally invests the commodity, 
not only from a commercial but also from a moral and 
social standpoint, with great importance, creating as it 
does an industry of almost fabulous proportions and 
capital, rendering it second to no other article of food or 
drink in the world. The early history of Coffee, how- 
ever, like that of Tea, is involved in considerable ob- 
scurity, the almost total absence of any historical fact 
being only compensated for by an unusual profusion of 
legendary and conjectural statements, or by purely mythi- 
cal stories. As far as can be ascertained, it was not 
known to the ancients, although one writer claims that 
it is mentioned in the Bible, making the bold assertion 
that the potion offered to King David on a certain occa- 
sion, at the hands of the fair Abigail, to calm the temper 
of the excited monarch, must have been Coffee, basing 
his argument on the untenable grounds that the beverage, 
whatever it may have been, was prepared from something 
roasted. Yet no mention of the plant or its product is to be 
found among the Egyptians in the time of the Pharaohs, 



EARLY HISTORY. 



although their trade at that period, as in the present, lay 
up the valley of the Nile towards Berber, its reputed 
birthplace. It was unknown to the Greeks and Romans 
in any form, and though claimed to have been in use 
among the Arabs at a very remote time, no reference is 
made to it by Mohamet or his followers up to the seventh 
century. No account of its use is to be found during the 
first Moslem invasion of southern Europe by Abdulrahman 
in the ninth century, although large quantities of the 
commodity was captured in their camp before Vienna 
during their second invasion of eastern Europe in the 
seventeenth century, and it is not even alluded to by 
any of the writers who accompanied the Crusaders into 
Syria during the thirteenth century. 

To the Ethiopians its use is said to have been known 
from time immemorial, and that the plant and its virtues 
were first discovered in that country is now generally 
admitted by all authorities on the subject. The first 
human beings who appear to have used the Coffee-berry 
in any form being the semi-savage tribes inhabiting 
higher Ethiopia, to which country the Coffee-plant is 
indigenous, and where it is to be found at the present time, 
growing abundantly both in a wild and cultivated state. 
Bruce, in his Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, 
published in 1678, informs us that "The Gallse is a 
wandering nation of Africa, who, in their incursions into 
Abyssinia are obliged to traverse immense deserts, and 
being desirous of falling on the towns and villages of 
that country without warning, carry nothing to eat with 
them but the berries of the Coffee tree roasted and 
pulverized, which they mix with grease to a certain con- 
sistency that will permit of its being rolled into masses 
about the size of billiard balls and then put in leathern 
bags until required for use. One of these balls they 



EARLY HISTORY. 



claim will support them for a whole day, when on a 
marauding incursion or in active war, better than a loaf 
of bread or a meal of meat, because it cheers their spirits 
as well as feeds them." 

From Ethiopia, the Coffee-plant is claimed to have 
been introduced into Abyssinia as early as a. d. 875, 
while, according to Lagrenie, Coffee has been known and 
used in Abyssinia, from the very earliest times, quoting 
the Abbe Raynal, a missionary to that country in the latter 
part of the sixteenth century, to that effect, stating that 
"he procured some of the berries from cultivated plants, 
and made a trial of them, finding them larger, rather longer 
and quite as fragrant as those obtained from Arabia." 
From Abyssinia it was evidently first introduced into 
Arabia, but at what period of the world's history, or 
under what circumstances is also lost in doubt. Tradi- 
tion — never at a loss for some marvelous story — ascribes 
its first discovery in the latter country to a Dervish, who 
in the year 1275 was driven out of Moka, pursued and 
surrounded by his enemies in the adjacent mountains. 
In the extremity of hunger he is said to have gathered 
some Coffee-berries and eaten them, then, steeping 
some of the parched berries in some water to allay 
his thirst, he accidentally discovered their agreeable 
flavor and nutritious properties. While another Arabian 
legend attributes its first discovery as an alimentary 
infusion in that country to a MoUah named Chadeley, 
who on being informed by a goat-herd of the peculiar 
and exciting effect produced on his goats, whenever they 
happened to browse on the leaves and fruit of a certain 
kind of tree, resolved to test their virtues on his monks, 
with whom it is related he had considerable difficulty in 
keeping awake during their nocturnal devotions. Pre- 
paring an infusion from the berries of the plant indicated. 



EARLY HISTORY. 



he served it to them, the experiment proving a complete 
success ; the dervishes taking eagerly thereafter to the 
new and exciting beverage. While, according to an 
Arabian manuscript, now to be found in the Bibliotheque 
Nationale of Paris, the use of Coffee was known in 
Arabia as early as the thirteenth century. This coffee- 
colored document states that "a certain Mufti of Aden, 
on his return from a journey to Persia, about the middle 
of the fifteenth century, brought back with him some 
roasted beans of Coffee." While in an old treatise upon 
Coffee, published in 1566 by an Arabian sheikh, it is 
stated that the first knowledge of Coffee and its use was 
brought from Abyssinia to Arabia about the beginning 
of the fifteenth century by a learned and pious mollah 
named Djmaleddin Abou Elfager. According to this 
document, the use of Coffee as a beverage was prevalent 
among the Abyssinians from the most remote times, and 
that in Arabia, when first introduced, it only supplanted a 
preparation made from the leaves of the Celastrus in that 
country. The introduction and use of the beverage by the 
Mufti gave reputation to the practice, his example soon 
rendering the new luxury popular among his countrymen, 
" first am.ong lawyers and professional men, then with 
students and those who learned reading, the custom 
eventually spreading to artisans and others who worked in 
the night, and finally by travelers, who journeyed in the 
night to avoid the heat of the day." In a short time it 
was declared in Aden " that this liquor purified the blood, 
by a gentle agitation, dissipated the ill condition of the 
stomach and aroused the spirits." As a result of this high 
extolation it was quickly adopted by those who had 
no occasion to keep awake at night, and in a brief 
space of time, sa^^s M. Galland, " the whole inhabi- 
tants of Aden became inveterate coffee-drinkers." 



EARLY HISTORY. 



Its peculiar property of dissipating drowsiness and 
preventing sleep, was taken advantage of in connection 
with the prolonged religious services of the Mahometans, 
and its use as a devotional anti-soporific, stirred up a 
fierce opposition on the part of the strictly orthodox and 
conservative section of the priesthood. Coffee being held 
by them to be an intoxicant beverage, and therefore pro- 
hibited by the Koran, and the dreadful penalties of an 
outraged sacred law, were held over the heads of all who 
became addicted to its use in any form. But notwith- 
standing the threats of divine retribution, and though 
all manner of devices were adopted in order to check its 
growth, the coffee-drinking habit spread rapidly among 
the Arabian Mahometans, and the growth of coffee, as 
well as its use as a national beverage, became as insepar- 
ably associated with Arabia as tea has with China. 

From Aden, the use of coffee extended to Mecca, 
Medina and other cities and towns of Arabia, the 
knowledge and taste for it rapidly spreading outwards from 
that country to Syria and Persia. Public coffee-houses 
being everywhere established, also in many of the other 
countries in western Asia, affording, according to one 
authority, " a lounge for the idle and a relaxation for the 
man of business, where the politician retailed the news 
of the state ; the poet recited his verses, and the Mollahs 
delivered their sermons to the frequenters." But the 
mania for coffee becoming so great about this period, 
particularly in Syria, that an effort was made by author- 
ity of the government to check, if not to entirely sup- 
press, the further growth of its consumption among the 
inhabitants, on the alleged ground of " its intoxicating 
properties," but in reality because of its use leading to 
social and festive gatherings, incompatible with the 
strictness and teaching of the Mahometan religion. 



EARLY HISTORY. 



From Syria the use of the "benign potation," as it was 
then termed, reached Cairo about 1 510, being received 
with equal avidity in that city, so much so that in that 
year its indiscriminate use was prohibited on religious 
grounds, also by Khaine Beg, the then governor of the 
city. In his proclamation forbidding the use of coffee, 
it was assailed by him as " having an inebriating effect, 
and of producing inclinations condemned by the Koran." 
This edict was, however, rescinded by his successor, 
Causin, soon after his assuming the governorship. But 
another effort was made to suppress its use in 1523 by 
the chief priest, Abdallah Ibrahim, who denounced its 
use in a sermon delivered in the mosque of Haffanaine, 
a violent commotion being produced among the populace, 
the opposing factions coming to blows over its use. The 
governor, Sheikh Obelek, a man wise in his generation 
and time, then assembled the mollahs, doctors and others 
of the opponents of coffee-drinking at his residence, and 
after listening patiently to their tedious harangues against 
its use, treated them all to a cup of coffee each, first 
setting the example by drinking one himself Then dis- 
missing them, courteously withdrew from their presence 
without uttering a single word. By this prudent conduct 
the public peace was soon restored, and coffee was 
ever afterward allowed to be used in Cairo. 

Coffee continued its progress without further molesta- . 
tion through Egypt, the beverage being received in 
Damascus in 1530, and in Aleppo a few years later, with- 
out opposition, becoming known to the inhabitants of 
Constantinople for the first time in 1554, in which year 
two persons, named Schems and Heken, the former 
coming from Damascus, and the latter from Aleppo, 
opened the first coffee-houses in that city, where it 
soon became the favorite drink with all classes, " the 



EARLY HISTORY. 



coffee-houses being thronged night and day, the poorer 
classes actually begging money in the streets for the sole 
object of purchasing coffee." And in Constantinople, at . 
this time, we are informed that " a refusal to supply a 
wife with a specified quantity of coffee per diem 
was admitted to be a valid cause for divorce." But 
in Constantinople, as in Cairo, the new habit excited 
considerable commotion among the ecclesiastical author- 
ities and political rulers, owing to the popularity of 
the coffee-houses having a depressing influence on the 
attendance at the mosques, on which account a fierce 
hostility was excited among the religious orders against 
the new beverage. They laid their grievances before the 
Sultan, who first prohibited and then laid a heavy tax 
upon the coffee-houses, notwithstanding which they con- 
tinued to flourish and extend. A similar persecution 
to that in Syria and Cairo soon attended its use in 
the Turkish capital, having not only to contend there 
with religious but also with political opposition, the 
religious, as usual, predominating in its severity. 
The dervishes had the sagacity to discover " that 
coffee when roasted became a kind of coal, and coal 
being one of the substances which their prophet had 
declared was not intended by Allah for human food," 
they therefore declaimed against it with unbounded 
fury. The mufti being of their party, the coffee-houses 
were at once closed by a firman of the Sultan, Amuret 
III. This prohibition was, however, found impossible to 
maintain, as a few years later a more liberal governor 
succeeding, he assured the faithful " that roasted Coffee 
was not coal, and had no relation to it." The coffee- 
houses were immediately reopened, and soon became as 
much patronized as before. But though religious super- 
stition thus readily gave way to the seductive influences 



8 - INTRODUCTION INTO EUROPE. 

of sensitive enjoyment, a submission not at all uncom- 
mon, the political objections were not so easily silenced. 
The government, first with that instinctive faculty so 
natural to all despotic rulers of converting to their own 
advantage the tastes and prejudices of their subjects, 
laid a heavy tax on the sale and consumption of coffee, 
from which it derived an enormous revenue. But the 
ever-trembling apprehensions of such forms of govern- 
ment, not satisfied with this restriction, found, or rather 
fancied it found, in the coffee-houses resorts for the 
disaffected and nurseries of sedition. These " dangerous 
places " were consequently regarded with a jealous eye, 
and again proclaimed against by the edict of the Sultan. 
But not being deemed formidable beyond the precincts 
of the city, and also being of too much importance to 
the public revenue, they were suffered to remain open in 
all other parts of the empire. Scruples of conscience 
and political objections, however, eventually died out, 
religious superstition and political opposition being no 
longer excited ^against the use of coffee as a beverage, 
so far as the Turkish empire was concerned. 

It is likewise very difficult to determine in what year 
and in what exact manner coffee was first carried from 
Constantinople to western Europe, but it is generally 
admitted that the Venetians, on account of the proximity 
of their dominions and extensive trade with the Levant, 
were the first Europeans to become acquainted with it. 
And it is a noteworthy fact that the three principal dietical 
beverages of the world were introduced into Europe 
within a few years of each other. Cocoa being the first 
of the three which actually appeared there, having been 



INTRODUCTION INTO EUROPE. 



brought to Spain from South America. Coffee followed, 
coming from Arabia, and Tea, the latest of the series, 
'coming from China by the hands of the Portuguese. 

The first authentic mention made of Coffee or its 
use by a European, is probably that of Rauwolf, a Ger- 
man physician and traveler, upon his return from, an 
extended tour through Syria, in 1573. The first scien- 
tific account of the plant being that given by Alpinus, 
an Italian naturalist, in his Medicina Egyptoriiim, pub- 
lished in Venice in 1591. Its use as a beverage is first 
referred to by two English travelers — Biddulph and 
Finch — the former, in writing of it in 1603, stating "that 
the Turks have for their most common drink Coffee — 
a blackish drink made from a kind of pulse-like 
pease, and called by them Coavar In 1607 Finch 
relates that " the people of the island Socotra have for 
their best entertainment a China dish called Cobo, a black, 
bitterish drink, made of a berry very like a bay-berry, 
brought from Moka, and supped off hot." While Pietro 
Valla, a Venetian, in a letter written from Constantinople, 
in 161 5, states that upon his return to Venice " he would 
bring back with him some coffee, which he believed was 
a thing heretofore unknown in his country," and which 
he subsequently did. It is also referred to, in 1621, by 
Burton in his " Anatomy of Melancholy " as follows : 
"The Turks have a drink called Coffee, so named from a 
berry, black as soot and as bitter, which they sip up hot, 
because they find by experience that that kind of drink, 
so used, helpeth digestion and promoteth alacrity." And 
coffee in a liquid state is said to have been sold in Rome 
as early as 1625. Some of the prepared beans of coffee 
were first carried from Turkey to France by De la Haye, 
as early as 1644; "not only coffee, but also the proper 
apparatus for preparing it." In 1657 a small quantity 



lO INTRODUCTION INTO EUROPE. 



was brought to Paris by Thevenot, its use, however, 
being confined solely to his own immediate family and a 
few friends. Up to this period, however, and for many- 
years after, it had never been seen and scarcely ever 
heard of by the public at large in that country. But in 
1660, "several bales of coffee" were shipped from 
Alexandria to Marseillaise, and in 1671 the first coffee- 
house was opened in the latter city near the Exchange, 
" where the merchants met to smoke, talk business and 
divert themselves with play." But it was not until the 
year 1669 that Coffee drinking became popular in France, 
though infrequent travelers had brought with them from 
the East a few pounds of the then curious berry. In 
that year Solieman Aga was sent as ambassador from 
Mahomet IV to the court of Louis XIV, where he 
soon became a " lion," through the splendid and unique 
entertainments at which he figured as host. On bended 
knees, the black slaves of the ambassador, arrayed in 
the most gorgeous Oriental costumes, presented the 
choicest Moka, in tiny cups of egg-shell porcelain, hot, 
strong and fragrant, poured out on saucers of gold and 
silver, placed on embroidered silk napkins fringed with 
gold bullion, to the grand dames who fluttered their fans 
with many grimaces, and bent their piquant faces — 
berouged, bepowdered and bepatched — over the new 
and steaming beverage. Such was the half-barbaric 
occasion by which Coffee first became generally known 
to that nation, which is now so largely dependent upon 
the " brown berry of Arabia." The Parisians imme- 
diately became quite enthusiastic over it, the aristocracy 
adopting it as the fashionable beverage, it being recorded 
that the daughters of Louis XIV had Coffee imported 
expressly for the use of the royal household, at a cost 
of ^15,000 yearly. 



INTRODUCTION INTO EUROPE. 



The first Coffee-house was opened in Paris, in 1672, 
by an Armenian, at the fair of St. Germaine. Meeting 
with considerable success, he was encouraged to open 
another at the Quai d'Ecole, where he was subsequently 
succeeded by another, but who, owing to a lack of 
address and a proper place to serve it in, was soon com- 
pelled to relinquish the business. About 1675, an enter- 
prising Frenchman, Ettienne d'Alep, fitted up spacious 
apartments in the Rue des Italienes, with Oriental 
magnificence for the purpose of catering to the public taste 
for coffee. This Cafe — as it* was called — was the first of 
these now famous institutions, was furnished in the most 
elegant and expensive manner, ornamented with rich 
tapestries, mirrors, pictures, divans and costly lustres, 
tea and chocolate being also sold in it. This style of 
coffee-house multiplied in a very short time in the gay 
city, and were regularly frequented by people of fashion, 
artists, men of letters and politicians, the Cafe Procope 
in particular becoming immortalized from its being 
patronized by Voltaire, Moliere, Bolieau, Fontaine and 
other Encyclopedists, while another, the Cafe de la 
Regence, became the Mecca of chess-players. In a brief 
period these coffee-houses had increased to nearly three 
hundred in Paris alone, the Cafes eventually becoming 
dangerous rivals to the Cabarets, finally becoming the 
cradle of the modern clubs, it being in one of these coffee- 
hor.ses — the Cafe Procope — that Camille Desmoulins 
was wont to deliver his stirring addresses. But, as in the 
East, at first, coffee here again met with considerable 
opposition. Madame Sevigne presuming " that coffee and 
other poisons would soon go out of fashion." 

The use of coffee as a beverage, is claimed to have 
been known in England prior to its introduction into 
France, and by some authorities, even before the return 



INTRODUCTION INTO EUROPE. 



of Thevenot from the East. One account states that it 
was first offered for sale there by a Jew named Jacobs 
at Oxford, as early as 1640. And according to the jour- 
nal of Thomas Rugg, dated September 22, 165 1, coffee 
was then sold in a liquid state at the " Sultaness Head, a 
Cophee house by the Royal Exchange, London," there 
being also distinct evidence extant that for some years 
prior to that date it was also offered for sale in many other 
parts of that city. The first authentic account, however, 
states that Coffee was first introduced into England by a 
Turkey merchant named Daniel Edwards, who, on his 
return from a trip to Smyrna, brought back with him a 
quantity of it, and with it a Greek servant from Ragusa, 
named Pasquale Rossie, who understood the Eastern 
method of roasting and preparing it. Edwards had it 
prepared and served every day to his friends and visitors 
in true Oriental style, but finding that the novelty began 
to attract too many visitors, his house being thronged 
daily by those anxious to taste the new beverage, he estab- 
lished Rossie, in company with another named Bowman, 
in a tent for its sale in St. Michael's Alley, Cornhill, Lon- 
don, over which Rossie erected a sign with his own por- 
trait, and subsequently announcing himself to be " the 
first person who made and publicly sold Coffee drink in 
England." Bowman, later, opened a coffee-house on his 
own account on Lombard street, his former partner, 
Rossie, going to Holland, where, it is said, he was the first 
to introduce coffee in the drink. At this time coffee sold 
for from twenty to twenty-five dollars per pound, but 
soon became cheaper. 

In 1657 many other houses were opened in London for 
the sale of coffee, an excise tax of eight pence per gallon 
being paid on it, when made and sold in the infusion 
at that time. The same year a newspaper advertisement 



INTRODUCTION INTO EUROPE. 1 3 

appeared, stating that " In Bartholmew Lane on the 
back of the old Exchange the drink called CopJiee is 
sold in the morning and at three o'clock in the after- 
noon." The first mention of coffee on the statute books 
was in 1660 when a duty of four pence was laid on 
every gallon of coffee made and sold, to be paid by the 
maker thereof, another particular statute, in 1663, direct- 
ing that " all coffee-houses should be licensed at the 
general quarter sessions of the peace for the county in 
which they are kept." While another advertisement in 
that year, says of coffee: " It much quickens the spirits, 
and makes the heart lightsome, suppresseth the fumes 
exceedingly, and therefore, is good against headache, 
prevents cough and consumption, and is excellent for 
the cure of gout, dropsy, scurvey, hypocondria and the 
like." 

In London, as in the other cities where Coffee was 
first introduced, coffee-houses multiplied rapidly, not 
only in the capital, but in all the larger cities of Eng- 
land, there being in 1688, according to Ray, as many 
coffee-houses in London alone as in grand Cairo itself. 
Coffee becoming a beverage of general consumption 
throughout the entire country. Long antedating news- 
papers, the coffee-houses became news-centres, where the 
intelligent men of the times gathered to learn what was 
occurring in the literary and political world, to discuss 
public affairs, governmental measures, and form public 
opinion. Wits and poets, essayists and philosophers, 
daily gathered in the coffee-houses of London, during 
several generations, to quote from favorite authors. How 
faithfully they harangued and button-holed each other 
in that fashion so common to all ages, and within their 
precincts, what fear and folly, what foolishness and wis- 
dom, has been uttered over steaming cups of Mocha. 



14 ■ INTRODUCTION INTO EUROPE, 

Many of these Loudon coffee-houses afterwards be- 
came famous as the resorts of celebrated men. It was 
at " Will's Coffee-house," in Covent Garden, that Dryden 
and Addison, Steele and Davenant, Carey and Pope, 
met with other luminaries, while others frequented " But- 
ton's;" Garrick sipping his Mocha at " Paine's," in 
Buchnal Lane. It being at the famous coffee-houses of 
" Garraway," " Coventrie," and the " St. James," that the 
Whigs of that time " did most congregate," and if it be 
proven that other potations more fiery and deep, min- 
gled with those of the Arabian product, it may be taken 
for granted that Coffee often supplied the place of worse 
beverages, or, at least, mitigated their evil effects, the 
" intellectual drink " gaining friends daily among the 
wits of the reign of Queen Anne. It was in a London 
coffee-house that Pope found the inspiration of " The 
Rape of the Lock," if not the " Essay on Man ;" also, 
an inspiration, which he celebrated in the following" 
lines : — - 

" From silver spirits the grateful liquors glide, 
While China's earth receives the smoking tide ; 
At once they gratify their sense and taste, 
And frequent cups prolong the rich repast ; 
Coffee ! which makes the politician wise, 
And see through all things with half-closed eyes." 

The coffee-houses of London, as in other cities, eventu- 
ally became convenient and much frequented resorts of 
association and acquaintance where politics, literature and 
business topics were freely discussed, and it is also 
remarkable that the introduction of coffee into England 
encountered the same hostility that it was fated to meet 
with in all other countries where it was first introduced. 
Here also it had its fanatical opponents, numerous 
pamphlets being published in favor of and against its use. 



INTRODUCTION INTO EUROPE. 1 5 

It was discussed from every point of view, medical, 
moral, physical and political, at one time threatening to 
become a causiis belli between the sexes. The " Women's 
petitition against coffee" and the "Men's answer" to the 
same have become a matter of history. Among the men 
also the new beverage had its opponents, as in 1657, the 
" Rainbow Coffee-house " kept by James Farr in Queen's 
Temple was reputed and persecuted by them as " a great 
nuisance, and a prejudice to the neighborhood," and as such 
was suppressed, but reopened in a short time afterwards. 
In 1675 Charles II for political reasons attempted to sup- 
press the coffee-houses by a royal proclamation, classing 
all of them as "Seminaries of sedition," and in which 
it was stated that " they were the resort of disaffected 
persons who devised and spread abroad divers false, 
malicious and scandalous reports to the_ defamation of 
His Majesty's Government, the disturbance of the peace 
and quiet of the nation." This proclamation caused so 
much excitement throughout the city that it had to be 
rescinded in a few days on a petition from the tea and 
coffee dealers. On the opinion of legal officials being 
taken as to the legality of that step, an oracular deliver- 
ance was given to the effect " that the retailing of coffee 
might be an innocent trade, but as it was used to nourish 
sedition, spread lies and scandalize great men, it might 
also prove a common nuisance." Cromwell ordered them 
closed again during the Protectorate for somewhat 
similar reasons, but having become necessary to the 
people they could not be put down for any length of 
time. But in England also, as in the other countries, 
the most effective check on the increase of the consump- 
tion of coffee was found to be a heavy tax, which, while 
restricting honest trade, opened up a channel for exten- 
sive smuggling operations. 



1 6 INTRODUCTION INTO EUROPE. 

The London coffee-houses, however, soon assumed the 
additional character of Taverns also, other liquors being 
added to the fare, thereby losing their attraction for the 
temperately inclined, the Cafe or coffee-house proper 
flourishing only for any length of time in Paris alone. 
But while the people of London began to complain that 
the company to be found in their coffee-houses was some- 
what mixed, those of the Parisians from the very first 
continued to be the most elegant and select places of 
resort even to the present day. Before their doors the 
equipages of the nobility stopped, while ladies of the 
highest rank drank their coffee without alighting, and the 
Salons within were crowded with nobles, philosophers, 
poets, artists and litterateurs. 

The sale of Coffee in a liquid form is claimed to have 
been first introduced to Holland by the aforementioned 
Rossie in 1664, from whence its use soon spread 
throughout Germany and other parts of the continent 
of Europe. While to Vienna the Turks themselves 
first introduced coffee in 1683, under somewhat singular 
circumstances. In that year the Moslems besieged that 
city with an enormous force, the siege being raised, 
as history tells, by the Polish King, John Sobieski, and 
the Moslem hordes completely routed. Large quantities 
of coffee were found in their deserted camp, and pre- 
sented to one Kolschutski as a reward for the heroic 
services he had rendered during the investment of the 
city, and utilized by him in the establishment of the first 
Coffee-house in Vienna. 

Coffee-houses have been known in the United States 
from an early period in its history, but for a long time 
New Orleans was the only city whtre they existed in 
their true character, the manner being learned from Paris. 
Among the American people, however, the beverage has 



INTRODUCTION INTO EUROPE. 1 7 

met from the first with great favor, being at the present 
time more extensively used here than in any country 
of the world, not excepting the countries of original 
production. 

Thus in a course of a few centuries has a berry, until 
then entirely unknown as an article of diet, except to the" 
semi-savage tribes of Ethiopia and Abyssinia, made its 
way through the whole civilized world. In the nations 
professing the religion of Mahomet it is drunk at all 
hours of the day, and during the night by all ranks 
and classes of the people, from the Sultan and the 
Mufti to the merchant, the artisan and the peasant. 
While among the nations professing Christianity, by 
whom it has been known for a couple of centuries, it is 
still regarded as a luxury, but indulged in, more or less, 
by all classes and conditions of society. In none of the 
states of Christendom was its use ever opposed by relig- 
ious fanaticism, nor had it to encounter much opposition 
from political jealousy, except for a brief period in Eng- 
land, when its use was interdicted by Charles II. But, 
like every other innovation which has occupied the 
human mind, it could not fail to occasion a difference of 
opinion among medical experts, social reformers and 
similar bodies. Its history, at the present time, being 
only valuable as an example of a commodity for which 
there is a universal craving amongst mankind in general, 
civilized as well as savage, and to illustrate how it has 
struggled successfully, and at length triumphantly, over 
religious superstition, political opposition, physiological 
prejudice, fiscal restrictions, exorbitant taxes, differential 
duties and an endless accumulation of antiquated obstruc- 
tions. Yet, still, in common with other important neces- 
saries of life, it has never attained to the natural state 
of " unrestricted competition." 



OHA.I^'I'Kli II. 



OE>OOieA.I»IIIO.A.I^ 13I»Tiei]BUTXOP^ 



'HE Coffee plant, although now so widely and ex- 
tensively grown and cultivated in both hemi- 
spheres, and to be found in all the Botanic 
gardens as well as in many of the private conservatories 
of the new and old worlds, was entirely unknown outside 
of Abyssinia and Arabia up to the close of the seventeenth 
century. Ray, in his " History of Plants," published in 
1688, expresses his surprise "that the neighboring 
countries of Europe should permit so rare a treasure to 
be confined to a single province, and wonders what 
watchful dragon is employed by the natives to prevent 
strangers from procuring either the plant or its seed, 
which could be readily grown in similar climates and 
soil ;" adding, " It cannot be imagined how the enterpris- 
ing commercial nations of Europe, which founded 
colonies in the tropics can be so inattentive to the value 
and importance of such an acquisition." Whether act- 
ing on this suggestion or not. the plant soon afterwards 
was introduced and extensively cultivated in many of 
the countries colonized by Europeans. 

Between well-recognized limits north and south of the 
equator Coffee is found growing and bearing highly 
profitable crops in a wide range of countries to attempt 
anything like an exhaustive account of which, is impos- 
sible within the range of a single chapter. Originally a 



20 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 

native of Southeastern Africa the coffee plant has been 
widely distributed, successfully cultivated and prop- 
agated in regions and countries geographically apart 
and in districts widely differing in climatic and topo- 
graphic conditions, and as having been found to endure 
greater extremes of climate, variations in soil and situa- 
tion than any other variety of plant of tropical origin. 
Its facility of propagation and production under such 
extreme conditions is admitted by botanists as most 
remarkable and equalled only by few members of the 
vegetable kingdom, its cultivation at the present time 
extending over the entire tropical belt of the globe. 

It is practically indigenous to almost the whole of 
Africa, being one of the few useful economic products 
that the African flora has as yet given to the world. It 
is to be found growing there abundantly in a wild state, 
particularly between the 5th and 15th parallels, and in a 
state of cultivation on the west coast in Liberia, Loango 
and northern Angola, as well as in many of the districts 
lying between the lower Congo and the latter country, 
wherein no white man has as yet penetrated, its planting 
and gathering being carried on by the natives, who bring 
their harvests down to the coast at Ambrig and neigh- 
boring settlements to sell to the white traders. The 
Portuguese colonists of Principe and Sao Thorne, cul- 
tivate coffee extensively, their products standing in high 
repute. It has been grown with success in the Gaboon by 
French missionaries, and some desultory planting is also 
being carried on in Senegal, St. Helena, Sierra Leone and 
the Gambia colonies. It grows wild in the Congo 
region, the districts around Glandypool being eminently 
adapted to its cultivation, but is as yet not taken advan- 
tage of there, the natives of these countries, unlike those 
further south, ignoring the properties of its fruit. 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 21 

It is cultivated in Natal and on the Zambesi river as 
well as in Usumbara, opposite to Zanzibar, which pre- 
sents a splendid field for Coffee planting, containing as it 
does admirable soil, cheap labor, easy transport and land 
which is to be had for next to nothing, the missionaries 
distributing the Coffee seed among the inhabitants to 
induce them to cultivate it more extensively. While 
further into the interior, towards Pare, Nyanza and Killi- 
manjaro, there are increasingly fine sites and suitable soil 
for successful and profitable Coffee planting only owned 
as yet by the birds of the air and the beasts of the field. It 
is to be found both in a wild state as well as in a state of 
cultivation in Abyssinia and the Nyassa district, being 
also cultivated for commercial purposes further north in 
lower Egypt, Nubia, Somali and the Soudan, as well as 
in Mozambique, and the islands of Madagascar, Bourbon 
and Mauritius. But the total yield of Africa so far as 
its influence on the world's supply is concerned is com- 
paratively insignificant, the export capacity of the latter 
countries not exceeding 800 tons annually. The total 
product of the eastern provinces of Africa taken in con- 
nection with the small quantities raised on the west coast 
making Africa contribute only between 3,000 to 4,000 
tons to the world's production, this amount including 
all the Coffee grown in Egypt and the interior countries 
of that continent. 

From Africa the coffee plant was undoubtedly carried 
to Arabia, but at what period of the world's history or 
under what circumstances is not definitely known. It 
was introduced from Arabia to Java in 1690, according 
to Boerhave, who tells us that " Nicholas Wilser, Burgo- 
master of Amsterdam and Governor of the Dutch East 
India Company, in that year instructed Van Horn, the 
then Governor of Batavia, to procure some plants or 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 



seeds of the Coffee tree from Arabia and endeavor to 
cultivate them in that settlement." Although its intro- 
duction into Java is placed later by Stavornius, who 
claims that the plant was first carried from Mocha to 
Batavia as late as 1722 by Zwardekiom, the governor of 
the colony in that year, other authorities claiming that 
Zwardekiom only helped to extend its cultivation on that 
island. The latter account is probably the most correct 
one, as it is recorded that coffee in the bean, grown in Java, 
was offered for sale in the Amsterdam market the exact 
year that Stavornius states that it was first introduced into 
that island. Be this as it may, the undertaking was 
successful from the beginning, many plants being propa- 
gated there, one of which, the first seen in Europe, 
was sent to the botanic garden in Amsterdam, where it in 
due time bore fruit. Many young tre^s were subsequently 
propagated from this plant and distributed among the 
gardens and conservatories of Europe, one of these being 
sent as a rare present to the king of France. The Dutch 
later extending the cultivation of coffee to Sumatra, 
Celebes, Bali, Timour and many other of the smaller 
islands of the Malay archipelago. 

The Coffee plant was introduced into India, on the 
Malabar coast, about the year 1700, from Aden, although 
it is claimed to have been grown in that country, in the 
province of Mysore, long anterior to that year, tradition, 
relating that the plant was first introduced by Baba 
Booden, a Musselman pilgrim, who brought " seven 
berries" with him from Arabia about the year 1600, 
which he is said to have planted around his hut in the 
hills of Mysore, near which coffee trees over one hun- 
dred years old are yet to be seen. The earliest Avritten 
account of the cultivation of the coffee plant in India is 
that contained in a Dutch work, entitled " Letters from 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 23 

Malabar," by Jacob Visscher, chaplain at Cochin, in one 
of which he states that " the Coffee shrub is planted in 
gardens there for pleasure, and yields plenty of fruit, 
which attains a proper degree of ripeness, but has not 
the refined taste of Mocha coffee." The exact year in 
which these letters were written is not known, but the 
Dutch editor's preface is dated 1743, so that it may be 
concluded that the plant must have been introduced and 
known in India prior to that year, although there is no 
official record made of the plant or its product in that 
country further back than 1822, and though undoubtedly 
grown there at an early period, does not seem to have 
met with much attention there up to the close of the 
last century, no allusion being made to it in any Indian 
work until we come to " Heynes' Tracts," published 
in 1800, in one of which we are merely told that coffee 
was then being sold in the bazaars of Bangalore and 
Seringapatam. At the present time Coffee is grown all 
along India from the northern limits of Mysore and south 
to the summits and slopes of the western Ghauts in British 
Cape Comorin, Coorg and Travancore, in the Wynaad 
and Neilgherry mountains, as well as in the slopes of the 
Shevany and Pulney hills. In 1880 over 500,000 acres had 
been taken up for Coffee culture in the Cochin, Madras, 
Mysore, Travancore, Belgaum and Bengal presidences, 
of which nearly 200,000 acres have now maturing plants. 
A very large portion of the surface of Burmah which 
still remains in its primeval state of unproductive jungle 
— owing to the almost total absence of natural energy 
on the part of the natives — is admirably adapted to the 
successful and profitable cultivation of Coffee. While in 
the hilly districts of the east coast of the Gulf of Siam, 
Cochin-China and the Straits settlements, the cultivation 
of Coffee is carried on to a limited extent, some fine 
samples being shown at the Exhibition of 1862. 



24 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 

The Coffee plant was introduced from Java into the 
island of Ceylon by the Dutch in 1720, where they 
began to cultivate it without any successful results, their 
efforts being confined to the lowlands in the districts of 
Galle and Negonogo, the location proving unfavorable 
in soil and temperature, the natives being also opposed 
to the innovation. But although some coffee of excel- 
lent quality was produced, notwithstanding these ob- 
stacles, it was found that it could not be cultivated there 
to advantage, when compared with the Java product. 
Yet though suspended for a time by the Dutch, it was 
not entirely abandoned by the native Cingalhese, who 
having, in the meantime, learned the commercial value 
of the article, continued to grow it in small quantities, so 
that after the British obtained possession of the island 
the Moors, who collected it in the villages, brought the 
hulled beans to Galle and Colombo, to barter them for 
cutlery, cotton and trinkets. It is claimed, on the other 
hand, to have been grown in Ceylon long before the 
arrival of the Dutch, and even the Portuguese, but that the 
preparation of a beverage from its fruit was unheard of 
by the natives, who only employed its tender leaves for 
their curries, and its delicate, jassamine-like flowers for 
ornamenting their shrines and temples. On the occupa- 
tion of Ceylon, after its concession to the British in 
1825, however, the English troops found the coffee tree 
growning in profusion in the vicinity of the temples in 
Kandy, and also large coffee gardens, highly cultivated, 
were found on the banks of the river Mahawelli and 
close to the palace of Hangaurau. 

The coffee plant was introduced into the Phillipine 
Islands by Spanish missionaries from Java about 1740, 
but a species of wild coffee trees have been found on the 
island of Luzon, the berries being left ungathered, the 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 25 

natives being ignorant of their use or prepaKation, there 
being well-authentic instances of the same kind at the 
present day where the natives wonder what is done with 
the berries when hulled and cleaned, whether it is eaten 
or for what purpose intended. It was first introduced 
into the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius by the 
French through Du Fougerais Grenier in 1717, from 
Arabia and from Mozambique to Madagascar by natives 
about the same period. 

The island of Borneo grows good Coffee, and since 
the country has been opened up to settlers some 
200,000 acres of forest lands have been selected by Can- 
tonese, European and Australian planters for this pur- 
pose, the gardens around Silam particularly being very 
encouraging as regards the new product. With the 
splendid and well-proportioned rain-fall Coffee grows 
extremely well, especially Liberian Coffee, for which the 
soil and climate of that island seems well adapted. Coffee 
cultivation is carried on there in the gardens of the Euro- 
peans and thrives remarkably well, while the Malays 
state that it is grown extensively by the Dyaks of the Pon- 
tianak river for the use of that settlement, but its culti- 
vation on an extensive or systematic scale has not been 
encouraged, the government not wishing to create a com- 
petition with Java. The hills on the mainland opposite 
Lubuhan are well adapted for its successful cultivation, 
since there Coffee can be grown without the trouble and 
expense of raising trees amongst the plantations to pro- 
tect the plants from the sun, as has to be done in so 
many other countries. It is also systematically cultivated 
in the islands of Guinea, Fiji, the Friendly and Hawaiian 
Islands, as well as in many others of the South Pacific 
ocean. The Coffee plant having been in existence in 
Samoa and other islands of that group for some years 



26 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 

past where it is found to flourish luxuriantly, proving 
the suitability of the soil and climate, but in consequence 
of never being scientifically treated there it has not as 
yet become an article of commerce from these islands. 
Coffee cultivation has been successfully introduced into 
Caledonia and other groups in the South Pacific, which, 
in the course of a few years, will probably form an impor- 
tant export, the trees raised there from seed bearing fruit 
in the fourth year. In Honolulu its cultivation is also 
progressing, large plantations having been laid out with 
a view to supplying the markets of Chili, Peru, Sydney 
and California. 

The mountain ranges on the northern coast of Aus- 
tralia from Moreton bay to Torres straits, and other parts 
of that section, are recommended for Coffee cultivation, 
while in Queensland the plant has long been successfully 
grown, but it has not as yet become an article of export 
there, the plantations having recently suffered much 
from disease. It has been found to thrive well, however, 
in the vicinity of Brisbane, Cardwell and other northern 
districts, especially among the sheltered ridges of the 
Herbert and Endeavor rivers, these sites offering the 
most favorable conditions, the smaller farmers finding 
that Coffee pays them better than corn or potatoes, sev- 
eral of them having recently sold to the merchants of 
Brisbane some of their product as high as 20 cents per 
pound. This list does not by any means exhaust the 
possible sections in the South Pacific where Coffee culti- 
vation has been tried with great advantage, but simply 
touches upon some of the chief centres adapted to the 
enterprise. 



INTRODUCTION INTO AMERICA. 27 



The history of the first introduction of the coffee plant 
into the new world is as romantic as it is interesting. In 
the year 17 14 the French king, Louis XIV, was pre- 
sented by the magistrates of Amsterdam with a fine 
specimen of the Coffee plant, almost five feet high and in 
full foliage, from the botanic garden of that city. This 
plant was carefully nursed, and from it some sprouts were 
sent to Martinique in 171 7, being committed to the care 
of De Clieux, an officer in the French naval service, who 
subsequently proved himself worthy of the trust reposed 
in him. The voyage being long and the weather unfa- 
vorable, the whole ship's crew were at length reduced to 
a short allowance of water, all the young plants dying 
except one for lack of nourishment. It was at this 
juncture that this zealous patriot divided his own scanty 
allowance with the plant committed to his care, happily 
succeeding in bringing it safe to Martinique uninjured, 
where it afterwards flourished and from which was 
propagated sufficient to supply the adjacent islands, De 
Tour claiming that from this single plant was produced the 
almost innumerable varieties now to be found on the 
American continent. 

In 1718, however, the Dutch colony of Surinam began 
to introduce and cultivate Coffee, from plants received 
from Java. In 1722 the French governor of the adjoining 
colony of Cayenne, having business in Surinam, contrived, 
by an artifice, to bring away with him from there a small 
Coffee plant, which, in the year 1725, had produced many 
thousands, which were distributed among all the French 
colonies on the mainland, its cultivation being extended 
to Para from Cayenne, by the French, in 1732; the first 



28 INTRODUCTION INTO AMERICA. 



Coffee plantation opened in Brazil being commenced in 
that province a few years later. Its cultivation, however, 
made little or no progress in that now world-famous 
Coffee-growing country until 1^67, when its cultivation 
was still further extended to the province of Maranhao, 
where it soon increased rapidly under careful and judicious 
management. 

In 1774 a Belgian monk, named Molke, procured 
some plants from one of the prosperous Maranhao 
estates, and carried them to Rio de Janeiro, the first one 
being planted in the garden of the Capuchin monastery 
of Adjuda, then situated in the suburbs, but now almost 
in the centre of that city. This plant prospered so well 
under his care, and he, becoming convinced of its future 
importance as a valuable acquisition to the industries of 
the country, that a few years later he cleared a planta- 
tion for its systematic and more extensive cultivation. 
Joachim Bruno, the then Bishop of Rio de Janeiro, also 
perceiving the valuable benefits to be derived by the 
country from Coffee cultivation, and to whom Brazil 
is indebted for the introduction and cultivation of many 
of its now valuable trees and plants, was accustomed to 
distribute the seeds of the coffee produced on Molke's 
plantation and the garden of the monastery among the 
religious institutions of his diocese, personally recom- 
mending and encouraging its cultivation by them, at the 
same time presenting many specimens to the laity. From 
this simple and unostentatious beginning, has grown the 
extensive coffee-lands of to-day in Brazil, hundreds of 
thousands of acres of land being devoted to its culture 
at the present day, over ;^ 1 00,000,000 being invested in 
the industry. 

From Brazil the coffee plant was later carried to Peru, 
Chili, Paraguay and other South American countries. 



INTRODUCTION INTO AMERICA. 2g 

while from Martinique it was first introduced into 
Jamaica by Sir Nicholas Lawes in 1732, a special act of 
Parliament being passed in that year to encourage and 
foster its cultivation on that island. Coffee culture is 
claimed to have been first introduced into San Domingo 
by wild fowl who carried the seeds in their craws from 
one of the neighboring islands about 1735, being later 
introduced to the smaller islands of the Antilles by the 
French themselves. 

The Spaniards procured some plants from Martinique, 
and undertook its cultivation in Cuba, Porto Rico and 
others of their possessions in the West Indies about 1750, 
its culture prospering well in these islands until replaced 
later by the less expensive and more profitable sugar 
industry, but it was not until 1784 that they undertook 
its cultivation in their possessions on the mainland. In 
that year Bartholemew Blandin started a plantation in the 
Chacao valley, situated about a league from the now 
famous coffee-growing district of Caracas, a Dr. Sligo, soon 
afterwards, following Blandin's example in the equally 
famous district of Maracaibo, the new branch of industry 
being soon generally adopted throughout Venezuela, 
Columbo, Ecuador and Bolivia, where several varieties 
are grown, particularly throughout the Yungas district, 
the best product being valued as not inferior to the far- 
famed Mocha itself 

In 18 18 the profitableness of coffee culture in the West 
Indies led to the establishment of extensive plantations in 
Mexico in the cantons of Orizaba and Cordova, which 
in 1825 were in a most flourishing state, its cultivation 
in that country being still further extended to the valleys 
of the interior, in 1826 there being in Cuentla and 
Cuenmarca alone estates containing as many as 500,000 
coffee trees. Elsewhere in Mexico at the time much 



30 INTRODUCTION INTO AMERICA. 



attention was bestowed in extending its cultivation, 
great hopes being entertained that every available spot 
would be occupied in its cultivation and that its people 
would be largely engaged in its cultivation and exporta- 
tion to foreign countries. But the civil disorders which 
begun so soon after its introduction to that country and 
which continued for so long a time after paralyzed the 
industry in its infancy, disappointing these hopes so 
much so that the production of coffee in Mexico has been 
almost limited to supplying the home demand. Now, 
however, a brighter era has arrived, more attention being 
given to its cultivation in that country, her coffee product 
steadily increasing and improving from year to year. 
From Mexico the cultivation of the coffee plant spread 
through Guatamala to Nicaragua, Honduras, Salvador 
and Costa Rica, until it is or v/ill be grown throughout 
all the Central and South American countries. 

Efforts have been made from time to time during the 
past twenty years to introduce the cultivation of coffee 
into the United States, many thousands of plants being 
distributed throughout Florida, Texas and Lower Cali- 
fornia with that object in view. Reported results to the 
Agricultural Department in Washington from these distri- 
butions lead to the belief that the climate is too cold for its 
production for commercial purposes. Some years ago 
the department received a sample of coffee berries which 
had been gathered from plants said to have been grown 
in the open air near the Manatee river in Florida. It was 
afterwards learned upon investigation that these plants 
had been protected during the coldest nights by canvas 
coverings, and in some instances with blankets, yet it is 
admitted that while it is more than likely that in the 
extreme southern parts of Florida the coffee plant 
would thrive without protection and in the open air, the 



INTRODUCTION INTO AMERICA. 3I 

topographical conformation of that part of the State is 
most unfavorable for its commercial cultivation. Again, 
in the extreme southern part of California climatic condi- 
tions favorable to its production has been found, but so far 
little encouragement has been received from the efforts to 
cultivate the plant in that section. Some years ago 
Liberian coffee-plants were introduced by the Agricultural 
Department, this species being hardier and needing less 
care and attention when transplanted to other countries. 
But, contrary to all precedent and expectations, they 
were found to require a warmer climate and more conge- 
nial topographic conditions than the Arabian species 
already tried. Here it is a fact worthy of note, that in 
many of the countries into which the coffee plant has 
been introduced, indigenous varieties were subsequently 
discovered. This is more particularly true of Liberia, 
Mauritius, Malabar and Manilla in the Eastern Hemi- 
sphere, and in Mexico, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Peru and 
Brazil in the Western. No less than sixteen different 
species being claimed to have been discovered in the 
latter country alone. 



OH^^Pa^E^:^ III, 






^^"HIS now impcH-tant and valuable article of food was 
f N known to the early inhabitants of Ethiopia, where 
^^ its virtues were first discovered and used, as Bun, 
signifying " brown " or " roasted." In Arabia it is termed 
Kazvah, meaning " strength " or " vigor," the infusion 
being called Quahouch; while to the Turks it is known as 
Chaube in the beai, and Kalive in the liquid state; to Per- 
sians, Kariveh; to the natives of the Malay Archipelago as 
Kopi, and finally Kaffa or Caffia by the inhabitants of 
that district, situated in the Province of Narca, in south- 
eastern Abyssinia, where it is to be found growing in wild 
abundance, even at the present day, whence its botanical 
name, Coffea, adopted by Linnaeus and others. 

The genus known as Coffea is divided by botanists 
into some sixty species, of which fifteen are referred to 
Africa, seven to Asia and about twenty-two to America ; 
but there is abundant reason for supposing that the 
majority of these so-called species are but mere varieties, 
a single genus due to different conditions of soil, climate 
and cultivation, three of which it will be sufficient for all 
practical purposes to distinguish in this work. It is 
classed botanically as a species coming under the head 
of the Pentandria of Linnaeus and the family Rubicece, 
although by others it is placed among the CincJwnaceces 
family of plants which comprise numerous species of 
tropical berry-bearing shrubs, one of which only is 
known to possess valuable properties celebrated for the 



BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND FORM. 



agreeable and stimulating effect of an infusion made 
from its roasted albumen. 

The common Coffee shrub is an evergreen plant, which, 
under natural conditions, grows to a height of from 
eighteen to twenty feet, having the appearance of an 
upright, slender tree, with main stem very erect, and free 
from branches for the greater part of its height, but 
opening at the top into drooping branches, few but long, 
with an abundance of fine fibrous roots under ground, 
and an all-important top-root. But in a state of cultiva- 
tion it is a shrub of close and systematic growth of low- 
standing, and averaging only from four to six feet in 
height, its upward growth being checked by the pruning- 
knife of the cultivator, and also trained by frequent cut- 
ting and topping so as to assume a pyramidal form for 
the purpose of increasing the quantity and improving 
the quality of its product as well as to facilitate the pick- 
ing of its crop. The branches are bracheate, horizontal, 
simple and opposite, growing regularly from the ground 
up, but trailing towards the top, cylindrical in form, 
flexible, loose and expanding out and downwards like 
those of the apple tree, and extremely pleasing in general 
appearance. The leaves are from five to six inches in 
length, and from two to three wide in the middle 
when full grown, oblong-ovate, accuminate, smooth, and 
of a dark, shiny-green color on the upper surface, but pale 
underneath, firm and leathery in texture, closely resem- 
bling those of the Portuguese laurel, continuing three 
years, and possessing slightly tonic and stimulating pro- 
perties. The flowers, which are produced in dense 
clusters in the axils of the leaves fitting close to the 
axils, are funnel-shaped and small but numerous, having 
a five-toothed calyx, a tubular five-parted corolla^ 
five stamens and a single bifid style, snow-white in color, 



BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND FORM. 35 

possessing a rich, fragrant odor, approaching that of the 
jessamine, the plants in blossom having a peculiarly rich 
and attractive appearance, the bloom being very evanes- 
cent and of short duration, but are quickly followed by 
fruit, there being generally two, sometimes three, relays 
of blossoms before all the buds mature, until after a day 
or two-, when they gradually turn brown and fade 
away; the slower and more gradual this process the 
better for the crop, which is always estimated by the 
abundance of the blossoms. The fruit, which quickly 
follows in the hollow of the leaves, is a fleshy or " pulpy " 
berry, at first greenish and hard to the touch, assumes 
a yellowish hue as it continues to ripen under the meri- 
dian sun, the color deepening not regularly but by crim- 
son or scarlet shades and tints which spread over the 
surface, having at this stage the size and appearance of a 
small cherry, assuming a dark-red or deep, glossy purple 
black color with a smooth and bloomless cuticle as it 
matures. In both states of flower and fruit nature is 
nowhere so profuse and beautiful in the variety of its 
colors and forms. The plant, being an evergreen, the 
foliage is always fresh, and, though, in the autumn season, 
the blossoms appear scattered among the dark-green 
leaves, resembling flakes of snow, they are hardly ever 
absent from the tree. It continues to put forth fruit, 
while the blossoms are arriving at maturity, and nothing 
is more singular or striking of its kind than its producing 
capabilities, as at all seasons, leaves, blossoms and ripe 
fruit are to be seen on the same tree at the same time, 
and the fruit may be gathered at any period, but the 
regular harvests are usually two in the course of a year. 
Each fruit contains two seeds embedded in a yellowish 
pulp, the seeds being again enclosed in a thin membra- 
neous parchment. The Epicarp or outer-skin of the 



T,6 i;iO]ANICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND FORM. 

berry is at first dark-green in color, but assumes a 
yellow and finally a bright-scarlet color as it ripens, 
becoming dark-purple as it dries, having a little circular 
area at the summit and a callous point through it. In 
this condition it contains a mucilaginous, saccharine, 
glutinous substance, technically termed the " pulp," a suc- 
culent, sweet and palatable matter, closely enveloping the 
seeds, fi-equently eaten by the pickers. Another sub- 
stance, known as the Mcsocarp, secures and separates the 
Pyrcnes or seeds, and as the fi-uit dries this mesocarp 
hardens and becomes part of the shell or hull surround- 
ing the seeds, Avhich it becomes necessary to remove by 
a milling or hulling process in order to free them from 
this covering. These pyrenes or seeds are again invested 
by a cartilaginous membrane termed the Endocarp, but 
commonly known as the " parchment," a papery, elastic 
substance, loosely but completely enveloping them. On 
removing this parchment we have exposed two small, 
oval seeds facing each other, though sometimes there is 
but one called from its shape male or " pea-berry." These 
seeds, which constitute the raw Coffee of commerce, are 
plano-convex in form, the flat surfaces which are laid 
against each other within the berry, having a longitudinal 
furrow or groove extending their entire length. When 
first exposed they are of a soft, semi-translucent bluish or 
greenish color, afterwards becoming hard, tough or flinty 
in texture, in which state it is known as " rice coffee," the 
bulk of which forms the Coffees of commerce. This 
seed or " bean " as it is called in trade is still incased in 
what is known as the Testa, another covering which 
forms an integument of the seed and which is known to 
commerce as the "silver-skin," the mass of the coffee 
beneath this testa being termed the Albumen. Contained 
in this albumen and embedded near its base is to be found 



SUB-VARIETIF.S. 37 



the Eiiibijo. The first of these structures, that is, the epi- 
carp, mesocarp and endocarp, belong to the fruit or berry, 
the other three, that is, the testa, albumen and embryo, being 
essentially parts of the seed or bean. The uses of these 
various structures surrounding the embryo are to protect 
it from injury and at the same time supply it with proper 
nourishment until such time as it is enabled to take care of 
itself The testa or silver-skin enveloping every part of 
the albumen, following and dipping into the furrow on 
the face of the Coffee bean by its tough, leatherly nature, 
acts as an effectual protectionto the delicate structures con- 
tained within. The albumen, bearing the same relation 
to the bean that flour does to wheat, the white-meat to 
cocoanut, and the aromatic, ruminated secretion to the 
nutmeg. It is a secretion, found in the internal of the 
seed, enveloping the embryo plant, and for the support 
of which it is destined when it first begins to germinate. 
Each perfect Coffee berry should contain two such 
oval seeds, placed facing each other, the flat sides oppo- 
site ; but it frequently occurs that only one seed forms, 
the other becoming abortive, and variously known as 
"virgin" "male" or "pea-berry." Coffee seeds are 
generally termed " beans " in commerce, a term not 
derived from any resemblance they may have to a bean; 
while, again, they are termed by many as " berries," the 
latter term being applicable only to the fruit or pod, the 
term " bean " being more appropriate to the seed. 

According to some botanists, there is but one genus 
of the Coffee plant, — Coffca Arabic a ^ — others, again, 
contending that there are two separate and distinct 
species, classified as Coff'ca Orientalis and Coffca Occiden- 
talis. While admitting but one genus, the difference in 



\8 



SUB-VARIETIES. 



size, appearance and product being attributed by them 
to a variation in soil, climate and methods of cultiva- 
tion, there are three principal varieties, however, readily 
distinguished and recognized by those who have much 
to do with it, and are known to commerce as Coffea 
Arabica, Coffea Libcrica and Coffea Maragogipe, lately 
discovered in Brazil, all of which or their transplants 
furnish the Coffees of commerce. 




Coffea Arabic a, 



Or "Arabian Coffee plant," is the best-known species, 
being an evergreen, partaking more of the nature of 



SUB-VARIETIES. 39 



a shrub, which, in a state of cultivation, varies in height 
from four to six feet, its foliage resembling that of 
Portuguese laurel. The trunk is erect and slender, 
averaging about three inches in diameter and covered 
witli a whitish-brown bark, rather rough in appearance. 
The branches are numerous, ordinaril}^ bending down- 
wards when the plant begins to grow old, but when • 
young and vigorous extend in a round form like an 
umbrella. The wood is very limber and pliable, so much 
so that the ends of the longest branches may be bent 
down to within three inches of the ground without 
snapping. The leaves are oval in form, dark green in 
color, shiny and sharp pointed as those of the c'tron 
tree, ranged on the branches opposite, but at a little 
distance from each other. The flowers or blossoms are 
also numerous, clustering with projecting antlers, snow}-- 
white and very fragrant, but of short duration, disap- 
pearing quick, but rapidly followed by the fruit spring- 
ing apparently from them. The fruit is a small berry, 
green at first, but assuming a rich scarlet as it ripens. 
From this species has been propagated the numerous 
varieties now known to commerce. The range of this 
species is at elevations of from i,ooo to 4,000 feet above 
sea-level between the latitudes of 1 5° north and 1 5° south, 
but its cultivation may be extended for commercial pur- 
poses to 36° north and 30° south in latitudes where the 
temperature does not fall below 55°; still the most favor- 
able climate for it would be where the temperature does 
not fall below 60° to 80° in the shade, and as to humidity 
there should be no month in the year entirely devoid of 
rain, the total of which should range from 100 to 150 
inches per annum, that is, an absence of extremes of 
temperature with a constant supply of moisture. This 
species is cultivated chiefly in Arabia, India, Ceylon, 



40 



SUB-VARIETIES. 



Natal, Java, Sumatra and other islands in the Malay 
Archipelago, as well as in Mexico, the West Indies, 
Central and South America and recently in Austral- 
asia, furnishing almost the whole of the coffees of 
commerce. 




Coffea Liberica, 



Or " Liberian Coffee plant," which has recently been 
brought forward as a rival to the Arabian variety, is 
an indigenous species found both in a wild and culti- 
vated state on the west coast of Africa, and which in an 
adult cultivated state ranges in height from fifteen to 
twenty feet, being of tree-like habits. The trunk is thick, 
very erect, and covered with a dark-brown bark of a 
downy texture. The branches also differ from those of 
the Arabian species insomuch as they do not possess 



SUB-VARIETIES. 41 



the horizontal, drooping tendency so characteristic of the 
latter, being also hardier and more prolific. The leaves 
are proportionately large, varying in length from eight to 
fifteen inches and in many instances from four to five 
inches in width at their widest part. They are dark-green 
in color, leathery in texture, and instead of the wedge- 
shaped base, narrowing as it approaches the petitole or 
stalk ; it more resembles the continuation of the extremity 
of the leaf itself. The flowers are also fewer, never more 
than six to eight in a cluster, are much larger, but devoid 
of fragrance. The fruit, as may be inferred from the 
tree-like habits of this species, is extremely large, averag- 
ing an inch to an inch and a quarter in length, ellipsoidal 
in form, and characteristically pointed at both ends. It 
lacks the bright red color of the Arabian variety, when 
ripe, being commonly of a dull red, approaching brown, 
becoming black as it dries. .The pulp is also thicker, 
fibrous and more fleshy, but lacking in succulence, and 
cannot be eaten ; the parchment being hard and brittle, 
dark-brown in color and never clear. The testa, or 
silver-skin, is much stronger, tougher, and more tightly 
rolled into the deep, narrow furrow on the face. The 
seed or bean is also extremely large in size, peculiar in 
form, what is known as " male " or " pea-berry " in 
form is dark-brown in color, solid and heavy in weight 
and exceedingly strong in flavor. Taken altogether, the 
wide divergence in the general appearance and habits of 
this variety, the culture of the leaves, lesser number of 
flowers, size, weight, color, peculiar formation, and other 
characteristics, stamp it as a distinct species of the genus 
Coffea. 

Increasing attention is lately being devoted to this 
species. It is a native of Liberia, and is to be found 
growing wild in great abundance along the whole of the 



42 SUB-VARIETIES. 



Guinea coast and is to be distinguished from the ordinary 
shrub by much more vigorous growth, by affecting flat, 
low and coast lands as well as hill sides, by attaining 
greater size and withstanding greater extremes of cli- 
mate. It also possesses the additional advantage in that it 
is capable of improvement by cultivation, and though as 
liable to disease as the Arabian plant, appears to be 
affected, only in a minor degree, while on the other hand 
the product is much coarserflavored, which is considered 
no drawback to its being used for admixture with 
better sorts, by which means it yields a cheap, yet gen- 
uine beverage. Experiments have been lately tried in 
Ceylon of grafting the finer flavored Arabian on the 
stocks of this species, thus producing a hybrid from 
which great benefits are anticipated in the future. It 
is a species, moreover, which grows well in low alti- 
tudes, and would probably flourish is situations that have 
proved unsuitable for the Arabian plant, and should it 
come up to the sanguine expectations of the Java, Cey- 
lon, Mexican, South American and other planters, to 
whom it has been submitted for experiment, there is no 
doubt but that it will prove a formidable rival to the 
species which have hitherto received the exclusive atten- 
tion of planters generally. 



SUB-VARIETIES. 



43 




Coffea Maragogipe, 

Or " Brazilian Coffee plant," is a new and indigenous 
variety, recently discovered in the province of that name, 
in Brazil, much larger than the Arabian, but smaller than 
the Liberian. It grows with extraordinary vigor, com- 
ing into full bearing much sooner than either of the fore- 
going varieties, trees of two to three years attaining a 
height of eight to ten feet, being full of fruit at that 
age, the berry and product per acre being also larger. 
Planters who have adopted this variety are so well 
pleased with the results obtained that they are replacing 
the regular species with it, all agreeing that in size of 



44 OTHER VARIETIES, 



berry, style of bean, strength and flavor, it is a species 
to be recommended. 

There are numerous other varieties of the Coffee plant^ 
closely allied, but still markedly distinct from the fore- 
going species, inasmuch as they do not possess any 
valuable or intrinsic properties, being cultivated only for 
the sake of their foliage or flowers. Among which is 
that of: — 

Goffea Mauritiana. — Found on the island of Mauri- 
tius, and evidently belonging to the Arabian species, yet 
claimed by LaMarche to be specifically distinct from it, 
on account of the difference in the size and form of its 
fruit. This eminent botanist must have been unaccount- 
ably negligent with respect to its specific character, 
having retained the description given by Linnaeus of the 
Arabian plant, which is in the Plantarium described as 
entirely opposite to it. 

Coffea Guinensis. — A native of Guinea, on the 
west coast of Africa, and a shrub from one to two feet 
high, with flowers quadrified, berries small and violet- 
colored, seeds two in number^ cartilaginous and pointed 
at the ends ; but found to be entirely devoid of the value- 
able or stimulating properties so characteristic of those 
of the true Coffee plant. 

Goffea Fanenlato. — Another species, also found on 
the Guinea coast, being a shrub having a large trunk, 
from seven to eight feet high, covered with a gray, 
cracked bark and yielding a fruit totally different from 
that of Coffee. 

Goffea Racemora. — A species found in a wild state 
on the east coast of Africa, and in a state of cultivation 



OTHER VARIETIES. 45 



in the vicinity of Zanzibar. It is a small, upright, tree- 
like plant about six feet high, heavy in foliage and flow- 
ering, but devoid of fragrance and barren of fruit. 

Coflfea Trifora. — A shrub of about six feet high, found 
in Othahetai, foliaceous and flowery, but producing no 
fruit. This particular variety is also to be found in 
Jamaica, San Domingo, Martinique and other islands of 
the West Indies. Many other species such as the Coffea 
Fambaseiia, a native of the Friendly Islands, Coffea 
Gheiigalensis, grown in Nepaul, Coffea Opulina and the 
Cirdorata, the latter being claimed to be analagous to the 
true Coffee plant, and is extensively grown on the island 
of Tamai, and many others cultivated principally for 
their seeds. 



oiXi%.r»^E^i^ T\r. 






1 



^^HE principal points which determine the value of 
f ^ a location for the successful and profitable culti- 
vation of Coffee are: — (i) Soil and climate; (2) 
Situation and aspect ; (3) Temperature and rainfall ; (4) 
Proximity to a river, and (5) Shelter from wind and wash. 
Most of which are necessarily subject to variation, accord- 
ing to country and locality,- shelter from wind being per- 
haps of the most paramount importance, and which should 
not be sacrificed for a richer soil, as the latter can be arti- 
ficially supplied much quicker than the former. 

Soil and climate are subjects of primitive importance 
in the cultivation of Coffee. The soil of Coffee lands 
varies as widely almost as the different countries in which 
it is grown. In Africa, where the plant is indigenous, it 
is chiefly composed of a reddish clay on the West Coast, 
with a hard sandy subsoil, while on the East Coast it is 
found to be composed chiefly of a dark loamy earth. 
The Arabian soil, where the plant is exotic and where 
the finest Coffee is produced, is purely an artificial one, 
while in India it is successfully grown in five different 
kinds of soil, ranging from a dark chocolate clay to a 
deep jungle mould. The soil ot Ceylon consisting of a 



48 SOIL AND CLIMATE. 



rich, dark earth, friable and mixed Avith blocks and small 
stones. On the island of Java, to the contrary, where 
some of the finest varieties are produced, the soil is prin- 
cipally composed of a black leaf-mould, intermixed with 
fine sand and small stones, whereas in the principal 
Coffee-growing countries of the American continent the 
best crops produced, as a general rule, are raised on rich, 
dark loamy lands, the subsoil of which are too rocky to 
be worked with a plow. The only exception to the rule 
being Brazil, where the soil varies to a great extent, a 
clay of terra rocJia forming the chief upper and lower 
subsoil. The most suitable soil for Coffee cultivation, 
however, is that which grows soft timber, to be found on 
high quartzy ridges, where the land is of a dark choco- 
late color, mixed with small stones, and overspread here 
and there with boulders of granite, as where the soil is 
dark, loose and full of roots, it is sure to be rich in 
organic matter, and therefore good for Coffee, which is a 
hardy plant and not on the whole difficult to please in 
this matter ; such a soil generally contains about 5 per 
cent, of its weight of organic matter in combination with 
other fertilizing substances. Looking at Coffee soil from 
an analyst's standpoint, it consists of an organic part, 
which when placed in the fire will burn away, and an 
inorganic or mineral part which will not burn. The 
constitution of the first is well known to planters, being 
formed of the remains of animals, insects, or minute 
visible and invisible organisms of various kinds, from the 
dung of animals, birds, caterpillars and worms, to that of 
roots, stems and leaves of decayed vegetable matter. 
The inorganic part, consisting of sand, clay, lime magne- 
sia and the oxides of soda, potash and manganese, includ- 
ing carbonic, sulphuric and phosphoric acids. The pre- 
ponderance of one or more of these natural divisions. 



SOIL AND CLIMATE. 49 



making the soil productive or unproductive as the case 
jnay be, while certain plants make certain calls upon one 
or more of these substances, and, consequently, such 
must be present and available in a soil that is to suit 
them. A rich soil for Coffee generally contains about 
five per cent., or one-twentieth of its weight, of organic 
matter in combination with other fertilizing substances. 
But as to the best soil for Coffee in particular the leading 
authorities differ, so that as a broad principle it may 
be laid down that the best soil is the richest, no matter 
what its color, whether it be the valley silt of Arabia, 
the volcanic mould of Java, the jungle soil of India 
and Ceylon, or the rich red earth of Brazil, But the 
deeper, freer and richer the soil, whatever it may be, the 
better as long as it is specially tested for phosphoric acid 
and potash. The latter is found in abundance wherever 
a large forest has been felled, burned grass-land being 
also considered good for the purpose, as it also contains 
these very requisite properties of Coffee soil. 

If the soil be naturally hght and poor and washed by 
every shower, the more soluble portions, together with 
the salts of the manure applied to the trees is generally 
robbed by the heavy rains. In such a case it is next to 
impossible to keep a plantation in a high state of culti- 
vation without an enormous expense in the constant 
application of manure. Many plantations are again 
subject to landslips, which are likewise produced by the 
violence of the rains ; in such cases the destruction is most 
disastrous, and whenever landslips are frequent they 
may be taken as an evidence of a poor clay subsoil. 
The rain soaks through the surface, and not being able 
to percolate through the clay with sufficient rapidity, it 
lodges between the two strata, loosening the upper sur- 
face which slides from the greasy cla\', launched as it 



50 SOIL AND CLIMATE. 



were, by its own gravity, into the valley below. This is 
the worst kind of soil for the coffee tree, whose long 
tap-root is ever seeking nourishment from beneath. On 
such a soil it is very common to see a young plantation 
giving great promise, but as the trees increase in growth 
the tap-root reaches the clay subsoil, and the plantation 
immediately falls off The subsoil is of far more im- 
portance to the coffee tree than the upper surface, as the 
latter maybe improved by manure, while if the former is 
bad there is no remedy. The first thing to be considered 
being the soil, and the planter being satisfied with its 
quality, there is another item of equal importance to be 
taken into consideration when choosing a locality for a 
coffee plantation. This is an extent of grazing land suf- 
ficient for the support pf cattle that may be required for 
producing manure. In countries with large proportions 
of forests, this is, however, not always practicable, the 
planter having recourse to artificial manure. 

The subject of climate, though quite as important as 
that of soil, can yet be described with more accuracy. 
The extreme limits of coffee cultivation lies between the 
isothermal lines of the 25° north and the 30° south ot 
the equator, but the best zone of latitude is that lying 
between the 20^ north and south of the equator, one 
having a mean temperature of 65° to 75° Fahrenheit. 
A constant and uniform moisture, either natural or arti- 
ficial is especially requisite and indispensable to the free 
development of the trees, together with a rainfall 01 
from 75 to 150 inches per annum, falling early in the 
season, but must be well distributed at the same time. 
The regions, however, found to be best adapted for the 
most successful and profitable cultivation of Coffee, are 
well-watered mountain slopes at an elevation ranging 
from 1,000 to 4,000 feet above sea-level, in latitudes 



SELECTING LAND. 5 I 



lying between 15° north and 15° south of the equator, 
although it is profitably grown at the present time from 
25° north to 30'^ south of that line, but only in situations 
where the temperature does not fall below 55° at any 
time. 

As a general rule, virgin forest land has been found 
the most suitable to break up for Coffee plantations, it 
having become naturally enriched by decayed vegetable 
matters, and the burning, to which it must first be 
subjected, frees it from all weeds and insects. But 
exceptional tracts of land, that have been once under 
cultivation and then allowed to run wild, also form 
good properties, and although the soil is rarely rich, 
it is generally exposed, and always entails great trouble 
and expense to keep down the weeds. A temperate 
climate within the tropics is to be preferred at all 
times, a certain degree of warmth and humidity com- 
bined being essential — in other words, an atmosphere 
resembling- that of a northern hot-house produces the 
finest crops of Coffee, but, unfortunately, it is inimical to 
the unacclimated planter and favorable to weeds. The 
most suitable climate, under these circumstances, is pre- 
cisely that which Americans prefer ; frost, even though 
it be only at night and for a short period, is fatal, while 
the presence of water, preferably a running stream, is 
most essential for watering the young plants, as well 
as for the " pulping " process. In a wooded country 
the plantation may be laid out in blocks of fifty acres, 
encircled by natural belts of forest; but flat land must be 
avoided, as a wet soil is fatal to profitable coffee-growing, 
and flat lands also would entail great expenditure for 
drainage, while steep slopes, on the other hand, are also 
<>l)jectionable on account of the wash occasioned by 



52 SELECTING LAND. 



rains carrying away both soil and manure, thus exposing 
the roots of the shrubs. The top or surface-soil must 
be fairly good in all cases, the subsoil may be, but must 
never be, composed of stiff clay, the shrub being essen- 
tially a lateral feeder. 

In opening a plantation, which is in all cases to be 
shaded by preserving a portion of the original forest trees, 
the first thing to be done is — after having ascertained the 
amount of land that can be conveniently planted in one 
season — to clear a wide road through the underwood 
from one end of the block of forest to the other, and as 
many at right angles to the line as may facilitate easy 
examination and of thoroughly inspecting the land to be 
cleared. The next thing to be done is to cut another 
wide line round the entire portion to be cleared, leaving 
a belt of from fifteen to twenty yards wide as a margin 
which is always to be kept uncleared, as this marginal 
belt will be found useful for shelter. The amount of 
shade must be regulated according to the value of the 
exposure as shown in the aspect. A great deal of shade 
being required on southern slopes, very little on northern 
ones, and only a moderate degree of shade being required 
for eastern and western slopes. The preliminary lines 
having been cleared, the whole of the underwood should 
then be cut down from one end to the other, and while it 
is yet green such portions of the larger trees as it may 
be difficult to remove by carting or dragging along the 
ground, should be cut up in pieces, but never burned, as 
is frequently the custom. This work should be com- 
pleted by the end of December. The land being thus 
thoroughly cleared, lines of road should be laid out and 
the usual linings and pit diggings carried out, and the 
plants put down immediately after. The next ])oint to be 
attended to is to plant out such trees as are particular!)' 



SITUATION AND ASPECT. S3 

suited to coffee shading, and to remove any kinds which 
experience has proved to be injurious ; these latter vary 
in the different countries. As the shade trees grow up, 
the same care must be taken of them as of the coffee 
tree, as regards pruning or topping, the lower branches 
being judiciously removed, the object being to grow a 
tree not only luxuriant but lofty, in order that it may 
throw a long shadow and so afford greater protection to 
the plants in its vicinity. Another point to be con- 
sidered in the location of a successful Coffee plantation 
is situation, as regards shade, sun and wind, as a location 
and method of cultivation suited to one climate may be 
entirely unsuited to another. In sea-coast or moist 
climates planting without shade is generally the custom, 
while in dry arid climates shade is indispensable, as in 
wet or damp districts Coffee can not be grown to advan- 
tage under the shade of the largest trees ; the methods 
of cultivation therefore should be entirely different in the 
differing districts or localities. To be emphatic, climate 
should regiilate shade, that is, shade plantations thrive best 
ill hot, dry climates, and unshaded in moist or humid ones. 

The Coffee-plant in most countries has been found to 
flourish best, and produce more abundantly, and reach a 
greater longerity on upland or mountain situations at 
altitudes ranging from one to four thousand feet above 
sea-level ; but a mean elevation of three thousand feet 
has been found by experience to be best adapted for its 
most profitable culture. In the selection of a site for the 
establishment of a coffee plantation the same general 
rules are observed throughout all the coffee-growing 
countries ; and, while an eastern or southern exposure 



54 SITUATION AND ASPECT. 

is preferable at all times, it is not essential under all 
conditions, this general principle being subject to modifi- 
cations from such causes as local peculiarities of climate, 
abundance of forest shade and methods of special cul- 
tivation. Many plantations situated at sea-level are 
generally overshadowed by thickets of dense foliage, 
while those situated on mountain slopes are usually 
much exposed to winds and wash. In the older coffee- 
growing countries of the East an eastern aspect is 
considered the most desirable, a western exposure being 
generally selected on the American continent, as it loses 
less of its moisture. The opposite slope being more 
exposed to the vertical rays of the sun thereby preserves 
a more equal temperature. 

Before clearing and burning the planter should take 
considerable pains to ascertain the values of the different 
aspects as regards sun and wind with the view of regulat- 
ing the amount of shade accordingly, as it is impossible 
to exaggerate the importance of the various exposures, 
For the effects the sun's ray have on certain aspects in 
heating the soil and drying up the plant are such as 
would be extremely difficult to believe had the effects 
not been verified by competent observers and with the 
aid of a thermometer. And as regards sites, northern 
and southern slopes in particular, the difference between 
the one exposure and the other is just what constitutes 
the difference between green and dried grass, and be- 
tween leaves luxuriously green and leaves dried and 
withered. The grass on the northern aspects being 
green and comparatively fresh, while even in a valley 
sheltered from drying winds the grass on the southern 
slopes is completely withered. An equally striking dif- 
ference is observable in the coffee plants grown on these 
situations, those on the northern slopes being full ol 



SITUATION AND ASPECT. 55 

health and hfe, while those situated on the southern are 
yellow, drooping and sickly; even in districts where coffee 
will not thrive without a considerable amount of shade 
the plants thrive well with little or even none on a 
northern bank, and look better than on a moderately 
shaded southern aspect. Nor in the nursery is the 
effect less of aspect, less striking, a nursery situated on 
a northern slope requiring less water and far less shade 
over the young plants than in a nursery sloping 
towards the south. 

With regard to the aspect of wnnd the subject is an in- 
finitely more difficult one than aspect as regards the 
sun's rays, the value of the latter being mathematically 
ascertained, for in countries full of hills and ravines one 
is constantly liable to be deceived as to the points that 
are exposed and those that are sheltered from the force 
of the wind ; what is the right side of the hill for one 
planter is often the wrong side for another, whose 
plantation is perhaps only a few miles distant. While 
one planter may rail against the east wind, another will 
be equally loud against a west. The winds, however, 
that are most to be dreaded as being absolutely fatal to 
a coffee plantation are the fierce gales accompanied by 
torrents of rain. These winds are injurious in two ways: 
first, the plants are blown about, their hold on the soil 
weakened and the tender rootlets broken as fast as they 
are formed, and in the second case, the rain which 
accompanies such winds is driven into the hillsides with 
such force as to occasion a certain amount of wash, the 
particles of soil being lifted and valuable top soil swept 
away and utterly lost. The southwest winds are only 
fatally injurious on the first barrier; further inland their 
force is greatly modified, and to such an extent that 
little or no injury results from them. 



56 SHELTER AND SHADE. 



Ill estimating the value and importance of exposu-res, 
planters and others of experience are frequently deceived ; 
as aspects that one would naturally conclude are very much 
exposed often remain untouched by the wind, while on 
others apparently sheltered it has been known to burst 
with tremendous force. Of aspects as regards wind there 
are two points that may fairly be relied upon. The first 
is the appearance of the soil on the slopes, and the second 
the inclination of the forest trees. The soils on windy 
slopes will be found invariably to present a hardened and 
washed appearance, and are deficient in decayed vegetable 
matter on the surface. The inclination of the trees, 
also, and especially the extent to which their heads are 
bent, denotes how forcibly the wind strikes on these sites. 
In summing up on these important points of aspect it 
may be observed, as regards the sun's rays, it is patent 
that a northern aspect is the best, and a southern one 
the worst, because the latter is exactly twice as hot as 
the former. And as regards the eastern and western 
aspects there is not, as regards heat arising from the 
sun's rays, much to choose between them. 

The worst enemy of the Coffee shrub is wind, its effects 
becoming apparent in pinched and stunted growth or in 
lack of foliage. In situations where the soil is soft and 
yielding it does equal mischief by working the stems in 
the ground, so that in a short time a funnel is formed 
round the neck of the plant, and this being continually 
chafed the bark is worn off, the roots are loosened, and 
the plant dies of what is called " wind-wrung." Should 
it be rescued before the bark is entirely worn off the 
plant may live, but it will be extremely liable to attacks 



SHELTER AND SHADE. 57 



from " lug worm " or any other blight that may be preva- 
lent in the locality. Belts of jungle or forest land are 
sometimes left standing as a protection from wind, but 
opinions differ as to the advantage of this plan, some 
planters holding that more harm is likely to result from 
the wind being concentrated into eddies instead of taking 
its natural and more equitable course. This question 
can only be decided by the local surroundings in each 
case. Such belts being sure to form nurseries for weeds 
and vermin are not intended to be permanent, and should 
gradually give way to fruit or other useful trees. Some- 
times artificial shelter is erected, but is considered too 
costly to find general favor; indeed, in moderately-shel- 
tered situations, staking, combined with low topping, 
ought to be sufficient to secure the stability of the plant. 
Where they are not, the situation has little to recommend 
it for successful Coffee culture. 

Shade is also a consideration of great importance, and 
the opinion now generally adopted is that the wholesale 
felling of the forest in some sections has been altogether 
a mistake, and that plantations which are now extinct 
might still be flourishing had the forest shade been at 
least partiall}^ retained. The history of Coffee cultiva- 
tion in the East proves that in hot climates, and where 
prolonged periods of drought may recur, Coffee will not 
flourish permanently, except under shade. In a state of 
nature the Coffee plant universally affects shade. This 
is the more remarkable, though the seeds are deposited 
by wild animals and birds as freely on open grass-lands 
as in forests. The suspicion that the " bover leaf disease," 
and other immediate causes of decay, are only induced 
by weakened state of the shrubs consequent upon their 
exposure to light and periods of drought, is supported 
by the fact that where shade trees are found standing 



5S CLEANING AND BURNING. 



upon an abandoned plantation, they are still surrounded 
by a surviving remnant of Coffee bushes. The question 
as to where shade is necessary is, however, one of climate, 
as it has been proved that it is not universally beneficial. 
The advantages to be derived from it in very hot climates 
being: diminished exhaustion and consequently increased 
longevity of the plant, reduced cost of cultivation, a con- 
servation of the nutritious properties of the soil, and an 
actual increase of them, as the cover given to the ground 
causes the surface vegetable matter to decay more rapidly. 
And provided the tree be a subsoil feeder, the shedding 
of the leaves will yield a positive gain of surface matter 
which the roots of the Coffee plant would otherwise 
never have reached. In addition to these there is the 
direct value of the timber grown on the estate. The 
only serious drawback to shade would seem to be a 
diminished yield of Coffee, but this is fully atoned for by 
the increased longevity of the plant. 

When forest land is taken for cultivation the first step is 
to effectually clear it of all timber and underwood, the 
latter being first cut by means of a " cattie" or machete, 
the large trees being felled from the top, and their 
branches lopped off so as to compact the pile, as other- 
wise the "burn" will only be partial. A fine day, after 
the night's dew has evaporated, is best for setting fire to 
the prostrate mass, the advantages of a thorough burn 
being that subsequent operations are greatly facilitated, 
and that the weeds and insects are thoroughly destroyed, 
while the disadvantage is that the upper soil is burnt 
and rendered unfit for filling into the holes. That injury 
may, to a great extent, be obviated by " lining and pit- 
ting " the land beforehand^ by which means the surface 



LINING AND MARKING. 59 

soil would be mostly covered over with the earth taken 
out of the pits, and thus be protected from the fire. On 
the other hand the " lines " could not be marked out 
with accuracy or with any regularity so that the estate 
would subsequently suffer to some extent in appearance, 
though it is an open question how far this drawback is 
worth considering in comparison with the other advan- 
tages gained. When there is not sufficient timber to 
make a good burn, the brush is felled and burnt in heaps, 
after which the ground is carefully gone over for the 
purpose of rooting up the tree stumps which remain, 
but these are sometimes so difficult to eradicate that they 
are left to decay, care being taken, however, to knock 
off shoots as fast as they appear. It is, however, a bad 
method and one seldom followed, as the rotting stumps 
harbor vermin of all kinds. After burning the wood the 
ashes should be scattered evenly over the ground as 
manure to enrich the soil. 

Immediately after the burn the plantation is "lined 
and marked out" for the reception of the plants, the two 
following methods being most in vogue among old and 
experienced planters: (i) A base line is laid down as 
nearly as possible straight up and down the slope, and a 
cross line is set off exactly at right angles to it ; on this 
line stakes are driven into the ground at the distances 
determined upon for the final position of the young 
plants, to each stake a rope is fixed and stretched par- 
allel with the base line, and as straight as possible, 
smaller stakes being provided along these lines, a rope is 
then finally held across them at succeeding stages of 
equal width as guided by measuring poles and the small 



6o ROADING AND DRAINING. 

stakes, and the small stakes are put in where the mov- 
able rope crosses the fixed ones, each stake indicating 
the site of the plant. (2) A rope is furnished with bits of 
scarlet rag or flannel at the distances decided on between 
the plants and stretched across the plot, stakes being 
inserted at each rag, the rope is then moved forward a 
stage at a time, gauged by measuring rods. The first 
plan is the better, especially in broken ground, but is more 
laborious, the second being best available in even grass- 
land, but the stretch of the rope must be estimated and 
allowed for, the great object being to have the lines per- 
fectly regular, and instead of making any deviation where 
stumps or other obstacles occur, the rope is laid over 
them and the corresponding plant omitted. 

Efficient roads not only greatly facilitate the making 
of a Coffee plantation, but they should be so laid out as 
to serve the additional purpose of drainage. A cart road 
should pass through the centre of the plantation wherever 
it is possible to avoid a steeper gradient than one in fif- 
teen, emerging upon the main highway. From this branch 
roads should be cut at right angles with as easy gradients 
as possible, and not more than from one hundred to one 
hundred and fifty feet apart; these branch roads should 
cross the lay of the ground so as to check, to the fullest 
extent, the effects of waste, and a boundary path encir- 
cling the estate is also useful for many reasons, but the 
main central road should be set out before pitting and 
planting. An excess of road accommodation as regards 
both the number and width of the paths is far preferable 
to insufficient roadway, despite the extra first outlay, and 
if the ground be such, it may cost a great deal to keep 
the roads clean and free from weeds. This, however, 



LAYING OUT THE NURSERY. 6l 

may be greatly lessened by plowing them up and plant- 
ing them with an annual crop until the land is exhausted, 
as not only will the roads be bounded by the plowing 
but weeds will not so readily grow. 

Nothing is more important than the thorough drainage 
of a Coffee plantation, in order to carry away the excess 
of moisture during heavy rains without allowing the 
surface soil to be washed away. For this purpose, con- 
tinuous open trenches are cut in parallel lines across the 
face of the slope and at from ten to fifteen yards apart, 
their gradient, however, should never exceed one in 
twelve, one in twenty or even one in thirty will be still 
better, their width may be from fifteen to eighteen inches 
and their depth not less than one foot on the lower side. 
They will need constant cleaning out aftd repair, espe- 
cially after a heavy shower, and must in all cases empty 
into a natural or artificial channel amply capable of 
carrying off the water ; if furnished with breaks to catch 
the suspended or detached soil so much the better, as the 
latter can be collected and returned to the plantation as 
a dressing. 

I^A.^S'IISrGr OUT TME^ I«XJI««E5l«Tir. 

The Coffee plant is propagated in three different Avays, 
by " Seeds," "Buddings" and " Cuttings," the two last 
being the most troublesome and objectionable, there 
being at the same time no branch of Coffee cultivation of 
more importance and none so frequently mismanaged 
or neglected as that of the production of the plant in 
the nursery, the greatest care and most constant watch- 
ing being absolutely necessary to the attainment of 
success. 

For this purpose should be selected a patch of gentl\' 
sloping virgin soil, warm and dry, soft in nature and not 



62 LAYING OUT THE NURSERY. 

richer than that to which the plants are to be subsequently 
transferred, but close to water, running water, if possible. 
The seed-beds must be somewhat shaded, but not so as 
to entirely exclude the sun nor so that the shading plant 
may gather rain and send it in streams upon the beds ; it 
must also be cleared of all the largest stumps and 
thoroughly dug to a depth of from nine to twelve inches 
and made very friable and at the same time slighly raised 
to promote drainage, and divided by paths into narrow 
strips. A deep trench is cut above the bed in an oblique 
direction to prevent damage by rain and wash. The 
seeds are sown in rows six to nine inches apart and about 
two feet deep and strewn about one inch apart in the 
holes, after which they are lightly covered with mould and 
shaded. A cheap and efficient shading may be secured 
by laying branches across a light framework of poles. 
All watering must be done in the morning or towards 
sunset. A bushel of coffee-seed should yield from 
20,000 to 30,000 plaiits, the best seed being what is 
known as " parchment " coffee, picked when fully ripe, 
pulped by hand, unfermented, unwashed and dried in the 
shade. When the plants produce from two to four leaves, 
exclusive of the seed-leaves, they are carefully loosened 
and transferred, in damp, cloudy weather, from the seed- 
beds to the nurseries and placed there from nine to twelve 
inches apart. Great care must be taken meantime not to 
double up the tender tap-roots, but if the tap-root is very 
long it is best shortened by an oblique cut, which soon 
shoots again. But when transplanting from seed-beds 
to nurseries is not practised the plants are left in the 
seed-beds until they grow larger. Many planters, how- 
ever, strongly recommend the former plan, as by check- 
ing the growth of the plants the young roots become 
liardened and better able, \vhen finally planted out In 



LAYING OUT THE NURSERY. 63 

the field, to resist insects, disease and unfavorable weather. 
A practical suggestion for preventing young seedlings 
from being eaten off at the surface of the ground by grubs 
is to lightly wrap them with a piece of paper about three 
inches broad where the stem joins the roots when plant- 
ing. The risk of having the young seedlings burnt up 
just after planting is best guarded against by various 
simple measures for shading them. In about a year, or 
when the plants have attained the height of about eigh- 
teen inches, they are ready for transfer to the permanent 
positions on the plantation which has been meantime 
prepared for their reception. 

In selecting a plot for a nursery such a command of 
water as will facilitate the flooding of every bed so as to 
thoroughly saturate the soil, will be found indispensable, 
as it has been found by experience that it is much 
cheaper to carry soil to water than water to soil. If a 
good supply of water cannot be conveniently had on 
forest land by erecting a tank or directing a stream, the 
cheapest plan will be found to be to transport the soil 
already prepared and lay it down to the depth of a foot 
to eighteen inches on any land that has a good command 
of water. A couple of boys can effectually irrigate a 
large nursery by this means if the water be conducted 
to each bed, while twenty men will be required to carry 
water as many yards to a nursery of the same size, 
and even then the beds will be but one-half watered. 
But economy alone is not the only advantage to be 
gained by this method of flooding the beds, as this 
process can be carried on at any time of the day, while 
watering-pots cannot be used except early in the morn- 
ing or late in the afternoon without scorching the leaves. 

If the nursery is formed on forest land as, if possible, 
it should be, the timber should he felled, cut ui) and 



64 LAYING OUT THE NURSERY. 

carried or rolled off the ground — and not, as is too com- 
monly the case, burnt on it — to obtain the best results. 
The former plan is the most expensive but will be found 
to pay better in the end, as the surface mould is not 
injured and the friable nature of the soil is preserved 
intact, whereas burning by consuming the vegetable 
matter on the surface, renders the scil more tenacious 
and less suitable to the springing of the seed. The beds 
should never exceed five feet in breadth, and each bed 
should be sixteen in length. Between each rows of 
beds shallow channels should be cut along which the 
water may be conducted to the head of each bed, and in 
these channels during the dry season water should be 
allowed to run continuously penetrating by this means 
gradually into the land, keeping it cool and moist. 
During the extreme hot weather the longitudinal division 
between the beds should consist of earth heaped up to 
the height of three, inches which will not only render 
the flooding of the beds more complete, but will also 
prevent them drying up as rapidly as they otherwise 
would. But during any storm these divisions should be 
removed and each converted into a channel to convey 
away the superfluous rain-water. 

As regards seed there is very little to be said, except 
that it should, as a matter of importance, be selected 
from the finest and healthiest trees, and consist only of the 
ripest and finest berries to be had. These precautions 
are seldom attended to, however, as it has never been 
ascertained definitely that plants from carefully-selected 
seeds are any better than from those grown at random. 
Seeds have been sown from trees both native and im- 
ported — on some plantations, of all ages and in every 
kind of way — pulped by hand, pulped by machinery, 
and not pulped at all, sometimes fresh and as frequently 



LAYING OUT THE NURSERY. 65 



six months old. Yet no difference could be perceived 
in the way the seeds come up, or in the plants produced 
from them, but, as a matter of convenience, it is much 
preferable to separate the seeds from the pulp and put 
them down in drills. In the drills the seed should be 
planted at least a quarter of an inch apart, and between 
each drill should be left a space of from four to five 
inches. The seed should be planted in March or April, 
except where a crop of plants has been previously taken 
from the soil, when the seed should be put down a month 
earlier ; in from fourteen to eighteen months excellent 
plants ought to be had, if the soil consists of virgin land. 
Many planters put down nursery seedlings that have 
sprung up under the old coffee trees, but this plan is not 
to be adopted when seed can be procured, and especially 
where the water is good. 

An excellent soil for sowing the seed is prepared from 
an admixture of loam and leaf-mould, obtained from the 
decayed leaves of trees and vegetable matter, ground 
fine, well sifted and then mixed with an equal quantity 
of sand ; while for the successful propagation of the 
young plants a manure composed of finest soil, cattle and 
sheep dung, dried, pulverized, sifted and then blended 
with proportionate quantities of a fine sandy loam has 
been found specially adapted for the purpose. The tap- 
roots of the young plants being extremely long and ten- 
der, an abundant supply of the latter will be found 
requisite, a good depth being very necessary to nourish 
and maintain them during the early period of growth. 
During the hot weather the young plants should be 
shaded, the most approved method of shading being to 
place posts about four feet high, with forked heads, 
driven into the ground at the corner of each bed, long- 
sticks being then laid across them from post to post, 



66 LAYING OUT THE NURSERY. 

resting in the forks and also laterally, the whole being 
then covered with grass, reeds or other material. Some 
months before the plants are required this shade should 
be judiciously thinned, and ultimately removed altogether, 
in order to harden the plants gradually by exposure to 
the sun and air. The plants, too, at this period, should 
be allowed to grow nearly to the required size, stinted of 
water and brought to a stand-still, in order that the heads 
of the plants and the extremities of them may solidify, 
for if the plants be transferred to the plantation with 
newly-formed and tender shoots they run great risk of 
being nipped off by the scorching rays of the sun, which 
frequently makes its appearance when least expected in 
rainy or cloudy weather. And when the nursery is 
at all exposed to dry, east winds the rows and divisions 
between the row of beds should be thickly planted with 
rose and fruit trees, as these not only add to the appear- 
ance of the nursery, but are also extremely valuable as 
shelters. 

The next branch of planting that demands special 
attention is that of transferring or transplanting the 
young shrubs or plants at the best possible distance from 
one another. Distances should be altered in accordance 
with the poorness or richness of the soil ; the richer 
and stronger the land, the greater distance should they be 
planted apart; and the poorer the soil and more exposed 
the location, the closer and more thickly they should be 
grown. If roads are made across the slopes and about 
midway up them, it may be laid down as a general rule 
that the plants above the roads should be planted far closer 
than those in the richer soil below. Thus, if six feet by 
six feet be found a convenient distance in the best land, 
four and a half feet by five and a half feet will be found 
the best distance in the poorer and more exposed positions. 



DISTANCES OF PLANTS. 67 

One prime object must always be borne in mind, /. e., to 
cover the soil, in order the better to shade it, to keep down 
weeds, and at the same time leave sufficient room between 
the rows to allow of passing up and down the lines with 
ease, and for the pickers to get about without forcing 
their way and breaking the branches. Bearing these 
objects in mind, a planter should regulate his distances 
carefully in accordance with his soil, situation and cli- 
mate. But on these points a planter must, in a great 
measure, rely upon his own judgment, and these sugges- 
tions are mainly intended to caution the planter against 
fixing on any arbitrary distance as being the best. 

Scarcely any two planters are agreed as to the best 
distances to allow between the plants, the question being 
governed to a great extent by the richness of the soil, as 
well as by climate and situation, the object in view must 
be that with the greatest convenient number of trees in a 
given space none shall interfere with or incommode its 
neighbor. In cold or exposed situations where the plants 
cannot obtain any great size, close planting is necessary, 
the reverse being the case where the climate is warm and 
humid and the soil is productive, and consequently likely 
to produce large bushes. In Java and the West Indies 
the space is often lo x 12 feet, but other crops are there 
usually planted between the Coffee rows, while in India 
and Ceylon distances vary from four feet each way to 
eight feet, the best being perhaps seven feet between the 
rows and six feet between the plants. The number of 
trees contained in an acre planted 6x / feet will be about 
1,000; 6 X 6, 1,200; 6x5, 1,450; 5x5, 1,750; 5x4, 
2,150; and 4 X 5, 2,700. The advantages to be gained in 



68 HOLING AND PITTING. 

wide planting are that field labor is faciliated and the 
shrubs grow larger, the disadvantage being that more 
room is left for weeds. 

Around or beside each stake a hole is next dug, its 
size depending much upon the kind of soil ; in stiff or 
poor land two feet each way is not too large, but in good 
light ground eighteen inches will suffice, but they had 
better be too deep than not deep enough. The imple- 
ment commonly used for this purpose is a kind of grub- 
bing-hoe or spade-bar. The earth thrown out is usually 
left to mellow until just before planting, after which the 
hole is filled in with the best of the mould, which must 
have been previously carefully freed from stones, roots 
and other extraneous matter, and mixed with a little 
manure. The filling-in must be done very lightly and 
the loose earth should rise in a heap above the hole. 
This operation is best performed while the ground is 
moist, but it is also a good plan to break down the sides 
somewhat, more especially if they are hardened. 

When the holes have been duly prepared the young 
plants are removed from the nursery with the same care 
as they are transplanted to the nursery from the seed- 
beds ; for taking up the young plants an ordinary prong is 
much superior to the spade-bar, but hand-pulling must 
be rigidly guarded against. The fibrous roots of each 
plant as taken up are carefully pruned off to about four 
inches so that they may not be doubled up in the plant- 
ing, the tap-root being also shortened to about nine 
inches b}" a clean sloping cut for the same reason, and a 
ball of earth should surround the roots and if the plants 



PLANTING AND PICKING. 69 

are exposed to the air for rnore than a few minutes, the 
roots should be covered with wet moss or some other 
damp material. A dull, cloudy day should be chosen 
for this operation whenever possible, as in bright sunshine 
the plants would be all burnt up. The plants are carried 
in batches in wicker trays or baskets to the plantation 
and are placed in the ready prepared holes by hand, great 
care being taken that no roots are doubled up, that the 
plants are upright and that they are placed no deeper in 
the ground than they were before, and in treading the 
earth down around the plant every precaution is neces- 
sary to prevent leaving holes for the accumulation of 
water around the roots. The surface must also be made 
firm and level as possible, but on a steep slope the outer 
edge may be slightly higher than the inner, to check the 
effect of any wash that may occur, but in subsequent 
weeding it will be necessary to guard against exposing 
the lateral roots. There is some diversity of opinion as 
to the size and age most suitable for putting out nursery 
plants, but when dull, rainy weather can be depended on 
for some little time, nursery plants of the second year 
are the most satisfactory, plants of one season only being 
too tender for the operation, but under ordinary condi- 
tions and with due care no serious loss of plants should 
be incurred in this way. A novel plan, one which may 
be advantageously adopted on small plantations, is the 
one resembling the method of planting Cinchona. A 
number of calabashes are deprived of their small end 
and emptied of their contents, into these the seedlings 
are placed and gradually exposed to the sun as they 
grow and finally planted in the calabashes ; the latter soon 
rot and form manure for the plants. A new plan that 
has been much followed is the substitution of "stumps" 
for nursery plants — that is, plants that have been in the 



70 DIBBUNG AND STAKING. 



nursery for about three years are dug up and pruned 
back leaving only about six to eight inches of stem ; they 
are hardier and safer in a general way than whole plants, 
more especially in uncertain weather, as they will strike 
readily, even without rainfall for some little time after 
being put in, provided the ground has become sufficiently 
moist to prevent their being burnt up, but they cannot be 
used in districts where a long period of drought may be 
expected to succeed to a wet season. The planting of 
stumps is performed in the usual way, the plants send up 
several shoots from the parent stem of these, the finest 
are retained to form the future tree and the rest are 
pulled off carefully. The shoot that is left grows rapidly, 
but from the way it springs from the stem it is liable to 
be accidentally broken off either by a high wind or by 
the weeders. The crookedness of the stump from native- 
grown seed renders them very inferior ; the best size for 
stumps is the thickness of a common pencil. 

When the land is very rich and friable holing may be 
replaced by the less expensive plan known as " dibbling," 
which is performed in two ways : (i) by the aid of the 
spade-bar is made a sufficiently deep hole into which the 
plant is dropped, and secured by treading the earth lightly 
around ; (2) a patch of ground measuring about one 
foot each way is thoroughly loosened without the soil 
being taken out, in the disturbed earth a hole is made 
with the hand, the plant is then inserted and trodden 
around as before ; the latter method is preferable. 
Dibbling is only practicable in exceptionable cases, and 
is, moreover, open to objection, as a hole is often left in 
which water may accumulate and rot the plant, and the 
roots are more liable to injury than in ordinary planting, 



SUPPLYING VACANCIES. 7 I 



but, on the other hand, much labor is saved. When 
the plants are exposed to the wind they should be 
provided with supports as soon as they are ten to twelve 
inches high, and present a resisting surface. For the 
first season's plants lining pegs may be used, but larger 
plants will need strong, inflexible stakes, three to four feet 
long, entering the ground on the windward side at about 
six inches distant from the plant, and at such an angle as to 
meet the stem at about its middle. The plant is attached 
to the stake by a broad loop of some vegetable fibre, 
firmly tied to the stake but loose around the stem of the 
plant. If the plants have already been worked round by 
the wind they will need earthing up to five or six inches 
as well. The ties should be brushed with coal-tar, as a 
protection against theft, insects and decay. 



Every precaution should be taken to guard against 
failures, as "supplies," as they are called, will seldom, if 
ever, do as well as young plants put into virgin soil, but 
in new land failures can be entirely guarded against by 
care, and their number may subsequently be limited 
by keeping the ground free from weeds, and by good 
draining, manuring and pruning. A certain number of 
vacancies, however, will occur from time to time. And 
they must be filled up in the following manner : The 
original pit having been re-emptied should be enlarged 
an inch or two all around, but especially in depth, and 
this should be done in dry weather, the pit being left 
open for some time, and only filled in when the time for 
planting has arrived, but in most cases it will be desir- 
able to refill the pit with the soil which has been taken 
out of it. Where the vacancy is in the midst of old 
trees a large pit is necessary to protect the new plant 



72 CATCH-CROPS. 



from being interfered with by these roots, and it will be 
also well to isolate the young plant by surrounding it 
with a ring trench, six to eight inches wide and one foot 
deep. It is also desirable to put a basketful or so of new 
soil from the first into the pit near the top, but where 
this cannot be managed a few handfuls of manure should 
be mixed with surface mould, for only strong, healthy 
plants must be used for this purpose. Stumps are, by 
some planters, considered more suitable than nursery 
plants for supplying vacancies, as, being hardier, they 
throw out from three to four " suckers," the best of 
which are selected when they have attained a height of 
from six to nine inches, the others being carefully pulled 
off. Well-formed nursery plants, with three or four pairs 
of primaries and about twelve to fifteen inches high, put 
in just as they come from the beds with a good ball 
around the roots, are to be preferred when steady wet 
weather can be calculated on for some time, but in any 
case supplies ought to be put in early in the wet season, 
so as to give them every advantage ; they should also be 
marked by a tall stake, and should be allowed to bear a 
maiden crop before being topped or pruned. 

Much has been said for and against the growing of 
other crops on the plantation among the Coffee shrubs. 
In Java and other Coffee-growing countries of the East 
it is grown between the rows. In Ceylon two catch- 
crops were long in vogue, but they appear now to have 
gone out of fashion, it being claimed that they exhausted 
the soil and produced too much there. While in Mexico, 
the West Indies, Central and South America, the culture 
of plantains, yams, cocoa and bananas was carried to 



CATCtt-CROPS. 73 



such an extreme on many plantations that the Coffee 
became, in fact, of only secondary importance, or was 
even entirely killed out. There is nothing, however, to 
object to in the simultaneous cultivation of several 
crops, so long as each has proper space and sufficient 
manure, and the plants are not antagonistic to each 
other, as many claim, and the failure of one crop may 
be compensated for by the success of the other. Rice 
and tobacco have been found to yield good returns as 
catch-crops, but they possess a disadvantage, in not 
affording any shade to the young Coffee plants. Cocoa, 
yams, bananas and plantains are perhaps even less 
advisable, and similar attempts with cotton have proved 
altogether failures, while maize, on the other hand, is 
highly recommended from experiences in Brazil and 
other countries. When adopted, it should be planted 
thinly in three rows, eighteen inches apart between the 
Coffee rows, and two plants apart in the Coffee rows 
between the Coffee plants. The seed should be sown 
immediately after the Coffee is planted. It grows very 
quickly and should early be thinned out to eighteen 
inches apart in the rows, and will soon be high enough 
to completely shelter and partially shade the Coffee, 
which will grow all the faster in consequence, the latter 
being also greatly benefitted by the extra working of 
the ground. In the fall a dressing of manure — the same 
manure will suit both Coffee and maize — is applied and 
the ground plowed or deeply hoed, preferably the 
former. The crops may also be repeated the following 
spring, reducing it, however, to two rows and one 
Coffee plant and repeating the manuring and plowing or 
hoeing, but this time the choice between the plow and 
hoe must be governed by the size of the Coffee shrubs ; 
if too high, the latter is best. 



74 MANURES AND MANURING. 



It is commonly said that Coffee is an unusually ex- 
haustive crop, but the exhaustion of the soil consequent 
upon Coffee culture is only the result of the peculiar con- 
ditions under which the industry is prosecuted rather 
than of the nature of the plant itself. Better than any 
amount of artificial manuring is the retention of the 
naturally rich surface soil by the effective prevention of 
wash as a secondary adjunct; however, judicious manur- 
ing will prove highly beneficial, and even necessary in 
almost all cases after the first or two. But it is impos- 
sible to lay down any hard and fast rule for manuring, the 
most that can be done is to indicate the essential elements 
of coffee soils, the best artificial substitutes and the best 
methods of applying these substitutes. The best coffee 
soils appear to contain about 15 per cent, of combined 
iron and alumnia, the iron, if as red oxide may amount to 
about 20 or even 30 per cent, being a good absorbent of 
fertilizing constituents, but the alumnia should not 
exceed 10 per cent. Lime is also an essential, which 
must be supplied, if wanting in the soil; this is too often 
overlooked in the anxiety to furnish stimulants. The 
percentage of organic matter may be too high, it should 
represent only about 0.2 to 0.3 per cent, of nitrogen, so 
that the best average manure for supplying nitrogen and 
potash is well rotted dung, but its frequent application 
should be accompanied by a little lime unless the soil is 
already very rich in that constituent, for, without the 
presence of lime, the shrubs will not receive the full bene- 
fit of the nitrogenous principles, but its use in a tropical 
climate must be governed by caution. Thoroughly fer- 
mented coffee pulp is also a useful manure, but it is onh^ 
half as valuable as dung and costs more to apply, it 



'MANURES AND MANURING. ^5 



should be kept covered as it is produced, and is best 
mixed with fermented dung, faihng which it should be 
well-limed, while alone is of small benefit, bub forms a 
good vehicle for concentrated fertilizers. Almost all 
coffee soils requires a constant renewal of phosphoric 
acid and lime, which are not supplied by the dung alone ; 
these constituents are best furnished in the form of bones 
steamed and ground or by concentrated superphosphate 
containing from 40 to 45 per cent, while phosphate of 
lime. Nitrogenous manures alone are too stimulating 
and help only to produce premature exhaustion, therefore 
bones may with great advantage be added to the dung. 
Composts of pulp and cake are useful nitrogenous man- 
ures, but they must be accompanied by phosphates and 
lime. Potash seldom requires to be directly applied, but 
is very advantageous after attacks of leaf-disease, while 
magnesia seems to be a necessary constituent of all good 
coffee soils in the proportion of 0.5 to 2 per cent., but 
when wanting dolomite may be applied in its place. 
The great object of manuring is to apply all the constitu- 
ents required and in a soluble form, but for coffee the 
nitrogen is better applied in an insoluble form— as in 
dung, cake and fish manure — than in a soluble form — as 
in guano, nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia. Phos- 
phates are best supplied in bones, when a lasting effect 
is required, but high-grade superphosphates are always 
preferable for immediate effect as in cases of leaf-disease. 
Again in tropical countries, all manures are best applied 
frequently and in small quantities. Regular manuring 
after each crop would doubtless be most generally 
economical and advantageous, the quantity depending in 
local conditions, but should always be extra liberal after a 
full harvest. Artificial manures should be put out only 
in damp weather, dung maybe applied at almost any time, 



76 MANURES AND MANURING. 



while lime must never be in a caustic state ; when applied 
its best forms are gas-lime and gypsum. 

The manure most freely applied and most relied on in 
countries where it is av^ailable, is cattle dung, and with 
the view of keeping up a regular supply of it, many 
estates keep a considerable stock of cattle for this pur- 
pose alone, and which are, in many instances, stall-fed 
with grass and oil-cake. But in many of the coffee-grow- 
ing countries this form, owing to a fatal obstacle in climate 
is not obtainable, for while, in some countries, grass can 
be readily grown all the year round, in others it is found 
impossible to provide any quantity of grass for even any 
part of the year, and cattle have to be grazed all day to 
support them at all. Besides the fatal objections to the 
foregoing kind of manure, there are others which serve to 
show that it is only under very favorable circumstances that 
cattle manure could be used with advantage. The first 
is the bulky nature of the manure and the consequent 
cost and labor of application, and the second, and by no 
means the least, is the great risk run of losing stock by 
disease. The latter consideration should be sufficient to 
deter the planter from depending on a manurial source 
which is liable to be suddenly cut off at any moment. 

Another formof manure in use among planters is bone 
manure, the value of which for all crops and in all 
countries, combined with its extreme portability and 
cheapness of application, renders it by far the most im- 
portant of fertilizers for coffee. This form, mixed with 
the pulp of the coffee is a popular one on many planta- 
tions. The pulp being moist prevents the bone dust 
from being blown away, and when heaped up before 
using, the heat that is thereby generated seems to exercise 
a considerable effect upon the bone dust. Still another 
excellent manure is made from alternate layers of farm 



MANURES AND MANURING. ■ 77 

yard manure and bone dust, making a splendid compost. 
The former is generally composed of horse, cattle and 
sheep manure, wood ashes and general sweepings. 
The best results have been obtained from this latter 
form, and if sufficient quantities of the first substance 
could always be obtainable, readily and cheaply, it is 
without exception, the best yet discovered for coffee 
manure. Bone dust, when used alone fails, though 
valuable as a berry producer, to give that dark green 
leaf and growth of strong young wood which is 
absolutely necessary to produce abundantly. 

The manne.r of applying manure is not the same in 
all countries or cases and no manure should be put more 
than one foot below the surface of the ground, nor less 
than eighteen inches from the stem of the coffee bush. 
On flat land, where there is no danger of wash, the 
manure may be spread over the surface and hoed into a 
depth of from nine to twelve inches, or, better still, a 
square hole may be cut between each four shrubs and the 
manure buried in it ; while on slopes it is customary to dig 
a hole above each bush. For bulky manures it may be 
two feet long by one and a half feet wide and one foot deep, 
but for concentrated manures these dimensions must be 
considerably reduced. The holes should be filled up with 
any prunings of other vegetable matter at hand and then 
covered down firmly with the loose top-soil and the new 
earth from the hole should be spread around the stem of 
the neighboring tree to protect its roots. Ordinary man- 
uring is sometimes supplemented by other methods of 
improving the soil, one of which is to loosen it by driv- 
ing a long bar or a manure-fork deeply into the ground 
and then prying up the earth without turning it over. 
Another operation is that known as "mulching" or 
" ground thatching," which consists in simply covering 



78 WEEDING AND PRUNING. 

the ground under the bushes with a layer of long, hard 
grass six to nine inches thick, the effect of which in cold, 
wet soils is to keep the ground warm and throw off 
excessive moisture, while in hot, dry situations it is 
equally useful to retain moisture. But in any case weeds 
are kept down and wash is quite prevented, and when 
rotten the grass may be hoed or dug in as manure; this 
thatching has been found a perfect cure for black bug. A 
third operation, termed "trenching " or " water hoeing," 
is where trenches are made across the slope, which may be 
either opened or closed. In the former case holes three to 
four feet long, twelve to fifteen inches broad and from fifteen 
to eighteen inches deep are cut between each four trees, the 
soil taken from them is spread over the roots of the trees, 
while the holes are left open to act as catch drains and 
receptacles for wash, weeds, prunings and other vegetable 
refuse, being emptied twice a year and their contents 
spread around the roots of the shrubs. Closed trenches 
are ditches cut across the entire length of the coffee rows 
two feet wide and deep and filled with any vegetable rub- 
bish at hand, they are then covered with earth and well 
trodden down, while the remaining soil is spread under 
the trees. The benefit of trenching is greatest in stiff 
soils. The refuse matter in the trenches should be well 
limed in all cases, in order to kill the grubs and other 
vermin for which it will otherwise form a nursery. 

By " weeding," on. a Coffee plantation, is meant the 
eradication oi every plant \m\\\c\\ is not being intentionally 
cultivated. The operation is performed in different ways, 
according to the nature of the soil. On light soils and 
sloping situations hand-weeding is much the best. The 
laborer is provided with a pointed stick to help in getting 



WEEDING AND PRUNING. 79 

up obstinate roots, and carries at his waist a small bag, 
into which the weeds are at once thrust, and afterwards 
turned out of the bags into pits dug at convenient inter- 
vals, or are heaped up on the roads and finally buried or 
burned, the latter being the surer method of effectually 
destroying them. By weeding early and repeating the 
operation as often as necessary, the ground may be kept 
clean by hand alone. But when hand-weeding will not 
suffice, recourse must be had to " scraping " the ground, 
which is, however, attended with a serious drawback — the 
first inch or more of the best surface-mould is removed, 
at the same time thus robbing the plants of nourishment 
and exposing the earth to the full effects of the wash. 
On stiff clay soils, on level plantations and in damp, cool 
climates on the other hand, hoeing is not only necessary 
for the perfect eradication of the weeds, but is of itself 
exceedingly beneficial to the soil, and except during the 
dry season should be regularly done, whether weeds are 
present or not. When scraping or hoeing it is imperative 
that the operation should be conducted from the outside 
towards the trees, so that the roots may be kept M^ell 
covered and the wash easily escape into the drains. 

The coffee tree, if allowed to grow to its natural height, 
will commonly be found to measure from twelve to 
fifteen feet. But the most experienced planters reduce 
their shrubs to at the most four and a half feet, and 
sometimes as little as three feet, and in windy and exposed 
situations two and a half feet in some countries have been 
adopted as the best height. And here, as in distance, 
the planter should be guided by the natu.re of the soil 
and partly by the aspect as regards wind. In thoroughly 
sheltered situations and in the finest land a tree may be 
allowed four and a half to five feet with advantage, but 
in all medium situations, as regards soil and exposure, 



So WEEDING AND PRUNING. 



four feet should be the Hmit, or even a few inches less; in 
very poor and much exposed situations three feet will be 
found ample for all purposes. The height being deter- 
mined on^ the next point is to consider the best time for 
topping or pruning them. By many planters the safest 
and most sensible time for performing this operation is 
considered to be when the tree has exceeded the height 
it is intended to keep it at, and when the bark has become 
brown and fully developed. Pruning should, if possible, 
be all completed before blossoming season, except when 
it is confined to the removal of plainly superfluous wood 
that is past bearing, or has, perhaps, only a berry or two 
on it, when pruning may be continued without injury or 
inconvenience until up to the commencement of May. 
When all these are removed it will generally be found 
that sufficient has been done ; but on very luxuriant trees 
the shoots growing in the right direction will be still too 
numerous, and will require further thinning so as to 
reduce the number to two shoots at every point of the 
branch. If this process of handling be fully and regularly 
attended to there will be very little and very simple work 
for the knife to do, and the pruner will merely have to 
remove the very driest and oldest secondaries and shorten 
back such primaries as may be too long and whippy. 

In the old neglected trees the process is more difficult, 
but may, with a little patience, be got into good order 
easy and cheaply. The first thing to be done with them 
is to cut out all secondary and tertiary branches that arc 
past bearing, and to clear out the centre of the head oi 
the trees. The removal of this superfluous wood will be 
followed by a sufficiently rapid growth of young wood 
which should be carefully handled, and after the next 
crop a fair proportion of cross branches may be cut out, 
but only to a slight extent, so as not to diminish the 



WEEDING AND PRUNING. 8l 

crop prospect. Others, again, contending that the proper 
time is immediately before or after the first blossoming 
season. In the former case it is claimed that topping 
before the blossoming season has a tendency to turn out 
a heavy crop on the pruning branches, while in the latter 
instance other planters boldly sacrifice the heavy yield 
in order to add to the permanent strength of the tree, 
invariably refraining from topping the plant until just 
after the blossoming period. By this latter method 
several pairs of branches, with their blossoms, are cut 
off and lost, but the sacrifice will be amply repaid by the 
increased strength added to the young tree, and also by 
the advantage of having a small crop on the primary 
branches below. 

The style of pruning first required by Coffee bushes 
is that known as " topping," the age and height at which 
this operation is performed depending in a great measure 
upon local circumstances, this question also being a much- 
debated one. The object of " topping," or removing the 
top of the bush, is to restrain its upward growth within 
convenient limits, and, as a natural consequence, to 
strengthen and concentrate its lateral growth. In some 
countries of the East topping is commenced at the age 
of twelve to eighteen months, the maximum ordinary 
height being four feet, which is sometimes reduced to two 
feet, the operation being postponed until the shrubs have 
borne their maiden crop, even though extra staking is 
required to withstand the wind ; the best plan being to 
remove the two primaries at the required height by a 
sloping outward cut close to the stem, and then to remove 
the top by an oblique cut so that the stumps resemble a 
cross, and a firm, natural knot remains to guard against 
the stem splitting down. ]->ut some planters contend 
that the plants should be topped as soon as they have 



82 WEEDING AND PRUNING. 

reached the required height, when the soft wood is easily- 
severed by a pinch between the finger and thumb, as in 
the case of tea. In other countries the shrubs are topped 
either at their full height — four and one-half to five feet- — 
or at three feet, allowing a ** sucker " to grow up on. the 
weather side, the latter plan being preferred. There is 
much advantage gained in limiting the height to five feet, 
as not only is the crop gathered more easily, and without 
damage to the tree, but it is actually heavier, and the 
shrubs are more readily made to cover the ground. The 
first result of "topping" is to induce the growth of a 
number of shoots, the removal of which is termed 
"handling" or "searching." The first to appear are 
vertical " suckers " or " gormandizers," from under the 
primary boughs ; these are immediately rubbed off with- 
out injuring the bark. From the primaries spring 
secondary branches in pairs, and at very short intervals. 
All such appearing within six inches of the stem are 
removed at once, so that a passage of at least a foot high 
is left in the centre of the tree for the admission of the 
air and sun. The object of pruning is to divert the 
energies of the tree from forming zuood, and to concen- 
trate them upon forming fruit. The fruit of the Coffee 
tree is borne by young Avood, and as the secondaries are 
reproduced when they are removed, they are cut off as 
soon as they have borne. A constant succession of young- 
wood is thus secured. In order that this may be regular, 
and to avoid weakening the shrub, the secondaries that 
grow outside of the foot space are left on alternate sides 
of the primary, their opposites being removed each year 
in turn; thus one is growing while the other is bearing. 
The one point in view must be the equal development of 
the tree and the yearl)'- growth of as much as it will bear, 
but no more. Branches must not be allowed to grow 



ENEMIES AND REMEDIES. 83 

into or cross each other, and if two or more secondaries 
spring from one spot the strongest only must be retained ; 
where a gap occurs tertiaries may be trained to free it in 
the same way. When practicable, the bushes should be 
handled twice before the crop, and the pruning should be 
commenced immediately after the crop and finished before 
the blossom comes out, but should this be impossible, it 
must be suspended during the three or four days of blos- 
som-time, and then be carried to completion. When it is 
evident that the crop on a tree will exhaust it if allowed 
to mature, a portion of it must be sacrificed by pruning. 
The loss thus occasioned is more apparent than real, as 
in every prolific season much fruit is wasted for lack of 
labor, and the trees are unreasonably overtaxed and bear 
poorly for some time afterwards. Everything should be 
done to insure regular and even crops; the cuttings 
should be trenched in among the plants as manure, and 
no branch should be allowed to bear more than two or 
three crops before removal. Regular and systematic 
pruning is one of the first essentials to successful and 
profitable Coffee culture. Where Coffee plantations have 
been neglected on this score they must be very gradually 
reduced to proper condition by sawing out the branches 
and opening up the centre of the trees in the first year, 
and trimming out about half the remaining wood in the 
second year. 

The profits derived from healthy Coffee growing arc 
so large that were it not for the many enemies which 
hamper the planter's struggles and stultify his best efforts, 
his occupation would be one of the most profitable in the 
world. But as it is he has to contend with numerous 
foes, and the more lowly and minute forms have proved 



84 ENEMIES AND REMEDIES. 

themselves the most difficult to combat in these long 
struggles which have been waged since Coffee cultivation 
first rose to its present importance in the various countries 
in which it is grown. From the mammalian kingdom he 
has not much to fear or is generally able to devise effi- 
cient remedies against their ravages. But besides the 
peculiar conditions of climate, aspect, drainage, shade, 
shelter and the many other drawbacks already alluded 
to, particular attention must be paid to the prevention or 
cure of certain maladies to which the Coffee shrub is 
specially liable. The number of these insect forms and 
and fungoid pests is considerable, but the only ones of 
sufficient importance to merit description are leaf-blight, 
fly, bug, borer and canker. 

Leaf-blight. — Is a fungus known as Homilica Vasa- 
ttix, allied to the moulds, and is present in. some form or 
other all the year round, first attacking the under side 
of the leaves causing spots or blotches, at first yellow, 
but subsequently turning black. These blotches are 
covered with a pale orange-colored dust or powder, 
which easily rubs off; they gradually grow in size until 
at last they have one part of the former with three parts 
of the latter, thoroughly incubating them before use. 
A disease known as leaf-rot, rather prevalent in some 
countries, is distinguished from the above, and which is 
referred to as a fungus named Pclicaalaiia Kolorga, 
sometimes appears when the leaves of affected shrubs 
become covered with slimy, gelatinous matter, turn black 
and drop off, the clusters of berries also rotting and fall- 
ing. There is every probability, however, that the 
sulphur and lime treatment will be effective in this case 
also, l)ut the slicd ]c'a\-cs and fruit should be collected 
and burned as a precaution, 



ENEMIES AND REMEDIES. 85 

The Coffee Borer. — This pest, formerly known as 
the "worm" and "coffee-fly," is most troublesome in 
the East, where in former years it destroyed whole plan- 
tations. It has been identified as the Xycotrechen qua- 
dmepes, and in its complete stage the insect appears as 
a winged beetle, having from one-half to three-quarters of 
an inch in length, rather finer in shape than a wasp, with 
hard, shiny coat, red and black in color, but in some 
cases yellow and black in alternate transverse lines, 
boring a passage into the stem of the coffee tree usually 
a few inches above the ground. 

The Coffee-fly. — This disease has been known for 
many years in San Domingo and Brazil, having also 
spread to Venezuela, the Antilles, Porto Rico, Mar- 
tinique, Mexico, and all down the Atlantic coast of 
South America. It is caused by the larv£E of a moth 
scarcely half an inch long, named Coniistana coffcalaiin, 
the color of the insect being dull-white or pale-gray, 
with a bar across the posterior end when quiet. Its 
motions are very active and it readily takes alarm. This 
insect prefers young and delicate leaves, and is most 
active about the commencement of the wet season, when 
demolition spread over the leaves, which then drop off, 
leaving the trees unable to produce any crop, or to bring 
to maturity that which may have already been produced. 
In districts affected by the northwest winds, the fungus 
generally exists as an external parasite, in the form of 
long, filamentous threads, covering every part of the 
back of the leaves, but so minute as to be invisible to 
the naked eye. Of the many remedies experimented 
with for the suppression of this disease, one only is 
invariably effective — that is a mixture of the best quality 
of flowers of sulphur and caustic lime. 



86 ENEMIES AND REMEDIES. 

The majority of the eggs are deposited, but are dor- 
mant during the wet season — that is, from March to 
May. The disease manifests itself by the appearance of 
large, discolored blotches on the leaves, causing their 
decay and fall. As a remedy, it has been stated that by 
picking the leaves at such a time, as to take the greatest 
number of the larvae when about two weeks' old, it 
would be easy to destroy the pest, as the size of the 
blotches would then easily distinguish the diseased 
foliage. Again, each of these contains several hundred 
eggs undergoing incubation, and in a short time the 
whole of the green wood of the tree will become cov- 
ered with the young insects and coated with a black, 
soot-like powder, which renders the tree easily dis- 
cernible at a distance. The bug will soon spread over 
the whole plantation, entirely checking the growth of 
the trees, the fresh, young shoots being always first 
attacked, and such wood as is allowed to mature, pro- 
duces hardly any crops; the berries, moreover, are in the 
earliest stages destroyed by these insects, which cut them 
off with the stalk. The measures recommended for 
checking this scourge are to dust the bushes with a 
mixture of powdered saltpetre and quicklime in equal 
parts, or to brush or sponge the affected parts with a 
mixture of soft-soap, tar, tobacco and spirits of turpen- 
tine, in about equal quantities. The white bug is a dis- 
tinct species of insect, known as Psedococciis adonibnivi, 
and is a small, flat, oval insect, about one-sixteenth of an 
inch long, covered witli. a white down or fur, having par- 
allel ridges running across its back from side to side, 
like the wood-louse, though on a much smaller scale. 
It is found in various, stages of development all the year 
round, and takes up its quarters on the roots' of the 
Coffee trees, to start one part beneath the surface, at the 



ENEMIES AND REMEDIES. 87 

axils of the leaves, and among the stalks of the crop- 
clusters, which it cuts off wholesale, either during the 
blossoms' stage or just after the young berries have 
formed. In the latter case, its operations may be easily 
recognized by the large quantities of young, green berries 
with which the ground beneath the trees will be strewn^ 
and is also discerned by a Avhite, flour-like excretion, 
which it deposits around the axil-works where it has 
made its abode. The prescription alike recommended 
for black-bug will be here found equally efficacious, but 
in either case probably a decoction of common tobacco 
might be sufficient when much more evenly prepared. 

The Coffee-bug. — The Coffee tree is attacked by 
various species of coccida in most countries, where they 
are known by different names, but careful cultivation has 
greatly reduced the evil. There are two distinct species 
of bug found in the Coffee-growing countries, called 
respectively the " black ",or " scaling," and the "white " 
or " mealy." The {^xvn&x , Lccunmmnn Coffea, is a minute 
insect which attaches itself to the tenderest shoots of the 
plant, the females having the appearance of small scallop- 
shells, of a brown c^lbr^and adhering to the leaf or twig 
in the same mannei^s the scallop-shell to a rock ; at 
first horizontal, soon takes an upward, spiral direction, 
and proceeds until a safe shoot is found, in which the 
larvae may be deposited. The tree soon droops and 
dies down to the point at which the entry has been 
effected, and where it can be easily broken off by a sharp 
pull at the upper part. The only course in this case 
is to break off the tree in this manner, and then burn the 
stem with the larvae secreted in its centre. Young shoots 
will proceed from the stump, and one of these may be 
trained to succeed the original stem. The insect is very 



88 ENEMIES And remedies. 

susceptible to the effects of wood smoke, and may be 
easily driven off or destroyed by the smoke of ordinary 
wood or grass fires. 

Canker, or Bark Disease.— Is a disease of the Coffee 
plant which has created great havoc in Africa and other 
countries of the East, and which causes an annual loss 
of about one per cent, of the trees of Jamaica and other 
West India Islands. The first symptoms is the withering 
of a secondary or tertiary branch, wdien it will be found 
that the bark under the primary branches is decayed and 
blue-mouldy, the blue mould gradually extending down- 
wards over the whole stem ; a tree once attacked never 
recovering, but dying in a few months. Ail soils and 
situations seem liable to this disease, the trees beginning 
to suffer when about six years old. Though the mould 
is the proximate cause of death, the ultimate cause 
is undoubtedly due to some unfavorable external 
condition. 

The opinions of experienced planters as to what 
this may be are various, being generally attributed to 
neglect of cultivation, to unstability of climate and to 
a want of sufficient depth of soil. All may be practically 
right, but the last seems the most probable, and is the 
reason given for it in many countries. Rot, grubs, rats 
and squirrels are accounted for in the following manner: 
" Rot," or the blacking and withering of the young leaves 
and shoots, is due to wet and cold, and may be cured by 
good drainage and mulching. Grubs of a large and 
yellow kind, destroy the tap-roots of the plants, cattle- 
manure being a fertile source of them, must be well- 
limed. Rats, squirrels, grasshoppers, ants and spiders 
collectively do considerable mischief, and should be 
exterminated whenever possible. 



GATHERING AND HARVESTING. 89 



The cluster of buds which duly make their appearance 
are at first little dark-green spikes, but as they grow 
they become straw-colored, then, under the influence ot 
a few showers, almost white, and finally burst into snowy 
blossoms, and after a day or two the flowers turn brown 
and fade away, the more gradually the better; when the 
bloom is out, the rainfall is unwelcome, but after it is 
" set " the shower is beneficial. The pistils of the flowers 
now assume the form of berries, gradually growing and 
changing their color from dark-green to light-yellow, 
which finally drys out to red or crimson. As soon as a 
sprinkling of red berries is seen, picking should begin 
and continue as long as any berries ripen, that is to say, 
from one to three months, but the berries or " cherries " 
as they are more frequently called, must not be picked 
until they are fully ripe, which is best indicated by a 
deep, purplish-crimson color, and as the crop rarely or 
never ripens all at once, two to three pickings are 
required, the second being the principal one, the others 
being rather gleanings than pickings. Each mature 
berry should be picked separately ofl" its stalk and never 
stripped oft''; the cherries as picked are dropped into a 
small bag about eighteen inches square, suspended from 
the neck of the picker, and the bags are then emptied 
into one or two bushel sacks or hampers placed at 
intervals on the paths of the pickers. If the berries 
are allowed to get over-ripe in wet weather, they will be 
liable to burst and drop the beans, or to fall off bodily, 
but if on clean ground much of them may be recovered, 
• while in very hot weather they are more likely to dry up 
and hold on to trees. In order to convey the berries to 
the curing-houses in some countries a great saving is 



90 PULPING AND PREPARING. 

effected in long distances, by running them with water 
down galvanized iron spouting, made in 8-inch lengths, 
laid with even gradients and curves duly secured. The 
berries are then despatched from the cisterns, to which a 
due proportion of water has been admitted, provision 
being made for collecting and utilizing the latter at the 
mills. 

The preparation of Coffee for market necessitates the 
erection of extensive buildings and machinery on large 
estates, for which no specific plans can be given, because 
much depends upon the size and situation of the estate, 
and as much upon the kind and degree of the prepara- 
tion contemplated. But the site selected for the works 
should be as near the centre of the plantation as is com- 
patible with securing a patch of open, airy ground to 
which a good stream of water can be brought. The first 
requisite building should be the " pulping-house," com- 
prising three floors — the berry loft, the pulping platform 
and the cistern floor — and whenever possible it should be 
built against a shallow cliff or embankment, so that the 
berry coffee may be delivered into the loft without being 
hauled upstairs by hand, while the berry loft is usually 
placed immediately over the pulping platform. 

The operation known as " pulping " consists in'clearing 
the coffee " beans " from the pulp in which they are 
enveloped, which with ripe berries is most easily and 
effectively accomplished immediately after picking, efforts 
being usually made to complete the pulping of a day's 
picking during the same evening. If over-ripe or 
shriveled, but still comparatively moist inside, the berries 
should first be soaked in water for a few hours previous. 
A number of machines have been invented for this 



PULPING AND PREPARING. 9 1 

purpose, the chief objects in all cases being to pulp 
rapidly, thoroughly and without injury to the bean, for 
if the inner or "silver-skin" of the bean be broken the 
latter is wasted. 

But the latest and most simple form of " pulping- 
machine is what is known as the " Disc Pulper," in 
which the separation of the bean and the pulp is effected 
by means of rotating discs, covered with a thin sheet of 
copper, whose surface has been " knobbed," is raised 
into sort of oval knobs by the application of a blend 
punch. Pulpers of this class being portable and cheap, 
are most frequently used in the opening of distant estates. 
The " single " form is very light, and when driven by 
three plantation hands, it will pulp all the way from 20 to 
25 bushels of berries an hour. The " double " form, which 
has two discs and which is furnished with a feeding-roller 
inside the hopper, requires from four to six hands to pulp 
40 bushels an hour, but when driven by power, it will hull 
from 70 to 80 bushels in the same time. In the machine 
the discs are placed between "cushions" of smooth 
iron, set at such a distance that the berries cannot pass 
without being bruised. The cushions rest in a movable 
bed of iron, set so that no bean can pass downwards. 
When the disc revolves, the berries are driven forward 
and squeezed, the corrugations then catch the skins and 
drag them between the disc and bed. These small 
pulpers have an advantage over the larger ones, in that 
each can be set to suit the size of a portion of the crop — 
which always varies in size — and in that, with two or 
more machines, there is less liklihood of complete stop- 
page in case of accident. One disc pulper to every 30 
or 40 acres — that is, about three to every 100 acres, two 
to be set alike for large size and one for smaller berries — 
should be ample in a fair-sized estate. 



92 FERMENTING AND DRYING. 

There are times, however, when it is impossible to 
pulp Coffee ; the pulpers may get out of repair, or the 
weather may be so untoward that the berry does not 
ripen sufficiently, or become too dry for pulping. In 
these cases the berries must first be fermented. The 
best way to do this is to place them in one of the tanks, or 
if the quantity is too small to nearly fill a tank, in an 
old box or cask, and cover it with sacks or grass, and 
let it remain until it acquires a good warmth ; then, when 
the berries in squeezing are no longer slippery, they may 
be taken out and spread in the sun to dry. For two or 
three nights it need not be housed, nor will rain hurt it. 
When dry, it may be stored for curing like parchment 
Coffee, but must not be mixed with it. To ferment the 
berries by leaving them in a heap on the ground is a bad 
plan for two reasons : First, when fermented in this man- 
ner it becomes very wet and collects dirt, which, in the 
after treatment, will affect the color of the Coffee. 
Second, because in a heap the fermentation cannot be 
equalized throughout the Coffee. Pulping may be per- 
formed whenever possible, as the increased trouble en- 
tailed by the latter process is not compensated for by the 
alleged improvement of the flavor and no better price is 
received for it. 

The " parchment " coffee as it comes from the pulper 
is next submitted to a fermentation process for the pur- 
pose of removing the saccharine matter, without which 
the beans would not dry. This operation is performed 
in a series of tanks, whose capacity varies with the size 
of the estate, and which may be arranged in squares. 
The pulpers are placed on a platform above the tanks 
and in such a position that the pulped coffee can be run 



FERMENTING AND DRYING. 93 

by water into the tanks, which must also be so situated 
that the coffee will always advance by the aid of running 
water and may finally be conveniently conveyed to the 
drying ground, while the water and refuse run off. The 
amount of cistern accommodation necessary for a planta- 
tion maybe based on the allowance of one cubic foot for 
each bushel of berries picked in one day. The tanks are 
seldom less than three in number — two receiving cisterns, 
each large enough for the greatest possible daily picking 
and a third for washing the parchment, nearly as large 
superficially, as the two others combined, that is, the 
"washing" tanks from twelve to fifteen feet long, two 
feet deep and separated by a causeway three and one- 
half feet wide, and the '* fermenting " tanks eight 
by eighteen feet long and two and one-half feet, 
deep. These tanks are usually made of brick-work, 
lined with cement or asphalt, but wood is much better 
because less cold, but all should have a slight incline in 
order to assist the drainage. The receiving tanks arc 
provided at the lowest corner with a good-sized outlet, 
fitted with a plug and with a movable sieve of perforated 
zinc or woven-wire, fine enough to keep back the coffee 
when draining off the Avater, but not so fine as to choke 
with saccharine scum ; the receiving cisterns being used 
alternately. All the coffee pulped in one day is allowed 
to remain in the receiving cistern until a slight fermenta- 
tion has set in ; this occurs in from twelve to eighteen 
hours in mild weather, but in cold weather it may take 
from thirty to forty hours and even more. There are 
two ways of conducting fermentation — the dry and the 
wet — the former consists in allowing the berries to be 
without water, the bottom of the tank being perforated 
so as to draw off the liquid, but by the latter process the 
tank remains full of water. The dry system, however^ is 



94 FERMENTING AND DRYING. 



the better as long as care is taken to turn the mass so 
that the fermentation shall be equal throughout; the 
presence of water equalizes the fermentation but retards 
it and slightly injures the quality of the coffee. When 
fermentation is not sufficiently prolonged, the beans will 
assume a yellowish color — called " blankety " — and will 
be difficult to dry, becoming liable to absorb moisture 
at the same time. But when properly fermented the 
separation of the saccharine matters is easily effected in 
the washing tanks, to which the pulped beans and a good 
supply of water is admitted. The washing cistern is 
provided with a sluice door at the lowest corner, this 
door commonly measuring six inches wide by three 
inches deep. The coffee is meanwhile constantly agi- 
tated by a wooden scraper or rake, by which the light 
coffee and refuse matter float and may be skimmed off, 
the dirty water flowing off through a tall cistern pro- 
vided with a grating to catch the skins and stray parch- 
ment, while the sound berries are placed in draining 
boxes to remove the excess of moisture and are then 
trausferred to the drying ground with the least possible 
delay. But should the climate be uncertain it will be 
necessary to provide for the emergency of a succession 
of wet days, when drying cannot be proceeded with. 
Parchment coffee may be kept in the undried state for 
two weeks without injury by placing it in a cistern exposed 
to a continuous flow of cold water. 

In drying, the berries to be dried are first spread out 
on a flat surface exposed to the heat of the sun. The 
material forming the terrcino (terrace) or drying ground 
varies greatly in the different coffee-producing countries, 
but most commonly the ground is leveled and then 
covered with a kind of concrete, sometimes asphalt is 
laid down, but, besides being expensive it is not sure 



FERMENTING AND DRYING. 95 

in hot climates to withstand the heat, and such a surface 
is Hable to crack and give way if not carefully drained. 
A very good and much better plan is to lay down coir- 
matting on ground which has simply been made smooth 
and hard; the advantages of this plan are its cheapness, 
the ease with Avhich extra ground can be requisitioned 
in case of need, and the use of the matting as a tem- 
porary covering in case of a sudden shower; modifica- 
tions of this method are to stretch coir or gunny cloth 
across modern frames, or across trays with or without 
wheels. Shed accommodations must always be provided 
ready for the reception of the coffee at any moment, and 
the beans must be constantly turned over and over, either 
by light rakes or shovels. The drying must also be 
rendered equable and must not proceed too rapidly so 
as not to crack the parchment before the bean is quite 
dry, for this reason also, the coffee should not be exposed 
too long to a strong sun for the first day or so. During 
the drying it is gathered in each day when the sun is 
hot, but will then continue to dry under cover. Every 
care must be taken to prevent overheating, which may 
happen by prolonged drying in mild weather; rather than 
permit this the coffee should be returned to a tank, and 
kept washed with running water. 

A new method, known as " artificial drying," has 
recently been adopted in Brazil and other countries, being 
much quicker and cheaper. An easy mcany of applying 
artificial heat is by passing an iron pipe, open at both 
ends, through afire outside the stove and below the level 
of the floor, continuing it into the stove just beneath the 
floor; the heated air, by passing upwards through the 
coffee, will carry off much of the damp. Revolving dry- 
ing machines are also in use; one of the best of these is 
one introduced originally for drying corn- It consists of 



g6 HULLING AND PEELING. 

cylinders into which steam enters and agitators arranged 
so that the coffee is impelled forwards and caught up and 
rained down as the cylinder revolves. The central cylin- 
der works in a steam packet, outside which is a light 
casing of sheet iron, perforated at one end so that the 
air may be drawn through by a fan to assist in the drying 
and carry off the liberated moisture ; this machine 
obviates the necessity for respreading the coffee in the 
terraces before hulling. Three days' thorough sunning 
usually suffices to render the coffee quite dry and brittle, 
in which condition it is known as "parchment coffee," in 
which state, in many countries, it is sent to port, its 
further curing being left to the shippers, for not only is 
considerable expenditure in buildings and machinery 
necessary for the purpose, but the experience gained by 
manipulating various lots of coffee will enable those 
who make the subject a special study to bring the sample 
up to the best standard of appearance and keeping prop- 
erties, but the coffee retains its color better if allowed to 
remain for several weeks in the parchment, and its quality 
continues to improve for months, even years, the pro- 
cess being known as " curing; " as, however, protracted 
curing causes great subsequent difficulty in removing, 
the " silver-skin " coffee is never kept in the parchment 
longer than is compulsory. 

This operation consists in the removal of the "parch- 
ment" and the "silver-skin," after which the beans are 
again exposed to the sun for a period which is difficult 
to define. Some planters say that they should be dried 
till they resist pressure of the thumb-nail, but there is 
really no infillible test, as no two samples are exactly 
alike. It needs much experience to prevent loss of weight 



WINNOWING AND SIZING. 97 

by over-drying, or of color by under-drying, but they 
peel best while still warm. A variety of hullers have 
been tried, but preference is commonly given to the old- 
fashioned edge-runner mill, composed of a circular trough 
with two large wheels revolving in it and suspended 
about two inches from the bottom. The trough is one- 
half to two-thirds filled with beans, which remain until 
the grinding action of the revolving wheels has separated 
their skins, when they are let out by a lateral aperture. 
A trough fifteen feet in diameter should turn out at least 
1,200 pounds of marketable coffee an hour, four bushels 
of good parchment coffee, yielding lOO pounds clean 
coffee. The appearance of the coffee immediately after 
hulling is very light colored, but it soon assumes a hern- 
green hue, which it will retain unless exposed to damp, 
when it becomes dingy or mottled-grey, and is classed 
as " country damaged." ■ 

The peeled Coffee as it comes from the huller in com- 
pany with the detached skins is submitted to the influ- 
ence of a fan whose force must be so adjusted that it will 
effectually remove the skins without carrying off the 
Coffee. When the Coffee has been cleaned from the 
skins, it is necessary to separate it into various -sizes for 
market, chiefly with the object of rendering the subse- 
quent roasting process more equable in effect. Formerly 
the sizing was performed by hand-picking, but it is now 
the custom to employ a machine called a " separator," 
which consists of an inclined, revolving cylindrical sieve 
formed of perforated sheet-iron or steel wires, and divided 
into sections of different meshes. The Coffee is fed in at 
the hopper which is furnished with a regulator and an in- 
ternal worm for the purpose of distributing it equally. 



98 BUILDINGS AND STORES. 



while a revolving brush prevents the meshes from being 
choked. Sand and dust pass through the first section 
and fall into the space while the small and broken beans 
are delivered below, the best and largest beans are caught 
up and the peaberry rolls freely out at the end. 

Though there is no necessity for curing the Coffee, 
and it may be hulled at once if desired, the exigencies of 
climate renders a properly-constructed warehouse one of 
greates- desiderata. The characteristics of structure 
must be, first, dryness combined with security; hence, 
galvanized iron forms the best material. It is generally 
of two stories, the lower floor being sometimes boarded 
or asphalted, but the upper must always be so made so 
as to admit of free circulation of air through the Coffee 
placed in it. This object may best be obtained by laying 
wire gauze or coir matting over reepers about one inch 
apart. Abundant ventilation must also be provided, and 
it will be necessary to watch for any sit^ns of heating. 
Immediately on its appearance the Coffee must be turned 
over rapidly. An improved form of Coffee structure is 
that built on what is termed the Clerichew principle, in 
which the floor of the upper story is constructed as in 
the former case, resting on joists running lengthwise in 
the building. A ceiling is provided for the lower story 
by tacking to the joists cloth which has been well soaked 
in boiled rice water and lime, to render it air-tight. Con- 
tinuous air-passages are thus made beneath the floor. 
About ten feet of one end of the lower apartment is par- 
titioned off, and its sides are made as nearly air-tight as 
possible, and it has no ceiling other than the floor above, 
so that the passages all open into it. In an opening in 
the wall of this chamber a pair of large revolving fans 



PACKING AND SHIPPING. 99 

are placed, their rapid vibrations drawing a continuous 
current of air from the inside, and therefore through the 
Coffee itself In this manner dried parchment Coffee can 
be kept in perfect condition without any turning over, 
and by using heated air on the same principle as before 
Coffee may be housed while still only partially dry and 
yet not suffer from fermentation. 

As soon as the Coffee is sized and graded it is ready 
for the market. Bags are most commonly used, but it is 
best packed in air-tight casks, made from wood, which is- 
not likely to taint the Coffee in any way. In shipping 
Coffee great care is required to prevent its coming in 
contact with any merchandise that may communicate to 
it a foreign flavor or odor. Vessels engaged in the 
Coffee trade should have perforated ventilating tubes 
from the bottom of the hold, passing through the cargo, 
so as to allow the escape of all steam and gases gener- 
ated during transit ; without such an appliance the beans 
will be discolored and classed as " damaged," an injury 
which cannot be covered by insurance. In well-ventil- 
ated ships Coffee loses about one-half per cent, in 
weight but gains in quality during transit ; while under 
bad ventilation there will be a gain of one-half per cent, 
in weight but a loss of color, and consequent deprecia- 
tion in value. 

Here a few remarks on the cost, prospects and profits 
of coffee planting may not be out of place. How much 
does it require to start on safely is frequently asked. 
From ten to twenty thousand dollars may be considered 
a fair capital. As to what kind of a plantation that can 



COST AND PROFIT. 



be had for these sums is a question that from the shifting 
nature of prices, and the varieties of chmates, soils and 
situations, cannot be accurately answered, or with even an 
approximation to accuracy. With regard to the profits 
of coffee planting the investor may get a very large return, 
a moderate or a small one, and he may even gain, as many 
who have tried it has done, a considerable loss. No 
reliance whatever can be placed on the estimates so often 
published, and though many of them may be accurate 
enough as far as they go, assuming that everything goes 
well, good soil, climate, cheap labor, good health, and good 
seasons must be taken into account, in the brilliant reports 
of the returns to be expected in the first few bearing years, 
usually terminating with the assertion that " the profits 
subsequently to be derived will be something fabulous." 
Transport facilities is another important factor and de- 
serving of much consideration. In many countries they 
exceed the cost of growing and preparing the crops for 
market, and it frequently occurs in the interior of Brazil, 
Mexico and other countries, that it does not pay to for- 
ward the coffee to the markets at the ports of shipment. 
But whatever may be the ascertained advantages in 
point of soil, temperature, moisture and situation, and 
however bountiful may be the yield of the plants, the 
speculation must always be estimated in connection with 
the cost and vicissitudes with which coffee planting as a 
business is unhappily associated. Anxiety must be in- 
separable from an undertaking exclusively dependent on 
native labor, and liable to be affected at the most critical 
moment by its capricious commercial fluctuations. The 
crops in most of the coffee-growing countries, when 
saved on the plantation, has either to encounter the risk 
incident to transportation by hand through mountain 
districts as yet unopened by roads, or the chances of 



COST AND PROFIT. 101 



deterioration to which it is exposed in bullock carts 
during long journeys to the coast. The real facts being 
that the difficulties in the way of forming accurate agri- 
cultural statistics, are in the coffee-producing countries 
almost insuperable, there being either a tendency to ex- 
aggerate or depreciate the yield, as it best serves the 
interests of the cultivators. And again as regards coffee 
in particular, there is no means whatever of estimating 
the product. A great deal being said but very little 
known in the way a man generally requires to know 
that he may wish to publish as reasonably near the truth. 
So in going into coffee planting in any country it signi- 
fies little whether you know what certain plantations liave 
yielded or what amount of profits may be expected. 
One fact may be relied on, however, that is, if an estate 
frequently change hands, it is certainly a bad or indifferent 
one, if seldom it is sure the coffee growing pays well, 
and further it is not necessary to inquire, for hardly any 
landed investment pays so well as good sound coffee 
property, and the owners are therefore seldom inclined 
to part with it. 

The extent of coffee plantations vary from lOO to 300 
acres, the annual product ranging from 500 to i,coo 
pounds per acre of prepared coffee, according to location 
and care bestowed on the plantation. The profits also 
vary with the ruling market price of the coffee at time ot 
sale, of labor, transportation and the inscrutable effects 
of the season. But a cost of from ^350 to ;^5oo per 100 
pounds may be considered a fair average ; any yield under 
300 per acre scarcely paying expenses, any over 700 
paying a handsome profit. 



OH:A.F»a:^Eji^ 1^. 






'OFFEE in commerce is the seed which grows in 
the pod or fruit of the coffee plant, like the pea 
or the bean. Geographically, it is divided into 
African, Asian, American and Polynesian coffees, and, 
topographically, into " Mountain," or upland, and " Plain- 
grown," or lowland Coffees, while commercially they are 
generally classified as " Mild " and " Strong," the former 
comprising in trade the product of all countries, with the 
exception of Brazil. Grown in so many different and 
widely separated countries, provinces, districts and situ- 
ations, it is but natural that the different products should 
vary materially in size, style, color, form, flavor and 
character, and which also accounts for the almost 
innumerable commercial divisions and sub-divisions cf 
names, grades and values. 

Africa is the original home of coffee, it being indigenous 
to almost the entire Continent; but while it is to be 
found gowing in a wild state almost all over the entire of 
tropical Africa, more particularly between the fifth and 
fifteenth parallels, its cultivation for commercial purposes 
on the " Dark Continent " is very light and partial a<; the 



104 AFRICAN COFFEES. 

present time, although it affords a field of boundless de- 
velopment in the future. African Coffees are divided into 
West and East Coast, the former comprising Liberian, 
Loango, Angola, Benguelan, Congo and Natal ; the latter 
including Abyssinian, Egyptian, Zanzibar, Mozambique, 
Nubian, Madagascar, Bourbon and Mauritius. 

Liberian — Is produced in the Americanized colony 
known as the " Black Republic," and is principally 
cultivated in the district of Mesurado, on the St. Paul 
river. It is an extremely large dark-brown bean, possess- 
ing very marked peculiarities, being " concave-convex " 
— technically termed "Male or pea-berry "—in form; 
that is, round on top, with long, deep furrow extending 
longitudinally down the face, tightly rolled or " folded " 
in appearance and very hard and solid in texture. When 
roasted and infused the liquor is dark in color, heavy in 
body and from 30 to 40 per cent, stronger in flavor than 
that of any other variety grown, and is considered too 
strong to use alone, but when blended in the proportion 
of about one to three parts of some of the milder growths 
it makes a fairly smooth and rich drinking coffee. 
The annual production is limited— about 10,000,000 
pounds — put up in large, coarse bags, averaging 200 
pounds, and is principally exported to England and the 
continent of Europe, where it is used principally, on 
account of its ultra strength, for mixing with chicory, 
and sold chiefly in the form of ground coffee. 

Loango — Also an indigenous variety, is grown in 
the interior province of Encouge, deriving its trade name 
from the port of shipment. It closely resembles Liberian 
in form and color, but is much smaller in size and greatly 
inferior in quality, and is sometimes termed " African 



AFRICAN COFFEES. I65 



pea-berry." The raw or natural bean is dark-brown in 
color, light or " chaffy " in weight, very brittle and poorly 
prepared, while the liquor is almost black and insipid, it 
not actually rank or nauseous, in flavor, the decoction 
tasting more like an infusion of char-bones than anything 
else it may be likened to. It is principally shipped to 
Spain, Portugal and other European countries, very little, 
fortunately, ever reaching the United States. 

Angola— Produced in the Portuguese colony of that 
name, is medium in size, concave in form, light-brown 
in color, strong and pungent in flavor, but lacking in 
smoothness and aroma. Not being regularly cultivated, 
its production is limited, that grown by the settlers on 
the uplands of the interior being much superior to the 
wild or native sorts. 

Benguelan — Is another variety of Angola, grown in 
the adjoining province to the south and closely resem- 
bles it in size, color and general character. Being also 
limited in supply, it is rarely if ever shipped to this 
country, what is not retained for home consumption 
being forwarded to Lisbon, Madrid and the Canaries. 

Congo — Is a medium-sized, heavy bean, strong and 
rich in the cup, and, taken altogether, a desirable sort. 

Natal Coffee — Is a large light-brown bean, closely 
resembling the Liberian product, being grown from that 
species, but greatly modified in body and strength. 
Coffee culture in Natal is struggling against adverse 
conditions, owing to the spread of the bark disease in 
that colony and for which no cure has been found. This 
is much to be regretted, as the quality of the product is 
very fair, the demand for the article continually growing. 



Io6 AFRICAN COFFEES. 



Some Coffees are also grown in the States of Senegal, 
Gambia, Sierra Leone, St. Helena and the Cape of Good 
Hope, but, being limited in supply and unknown to 
commerce, do not need description here. 

Abyssinian. — The Coffee plant and its product have 
been known in Abyssinia from time immemorial, its fruit 
being used there in a roasted state, but in solid form, for 
centuries before its introduction to the civilized world, 
receiving its now universal name from the district of Kaffa 
or Caffa, in the southeastern part of that country, and 
becoming the parent-plant of all the numerous varieties 
now to be found on the Red Sea littoral. At the present 
time it is grown there in all its native luxuriance and 
primitive abundance, from the borders of Narla to the 
banks of the Nile, forming the chief wood of the country. 
It is also cultivated there in almost all situations, on 
plateaus and table-lands, mountain and valley, hill and 
plain, growing as luxuriantly and producing as prolifically 
on low as on upland sites. The bean is small in com- 
parison with the average coffee of commerce, but long and 
narrow in shape, hard and " flinty " in texture, and vary- 
ing in color from a translucent green to a yellowish hue, 
according to its age. In body and flavor it ranks next to 
Mocha, to which coffee it is analagous, and is by many 
connossieurs preferred to it as being smoother and less 
heating in effect. It is little known to commerce under 
its true name, being principally shipped from Massowah 
to Aden and Alexandria, where it loses its identity, mas- 
querading under the head of " Long-berry Mocha," and 
going principally to the Mediterranean and other Euro- 
pean markets. The annual crop is large and the yield 
excellent, but communication and transport facilities 
being difficult and crude, the bulk of the product does 



AFRICAN COFFEES. I67 



not reach the outside world. It is to be hoped, how- 
ever, that whenever this rich country which produces 
coffee in such wild abundance shall be permitted, by 
civilized man, to enjoy its fertility it will rapidly become 
an article of extensive cultivation and commerce. 

Egyptian — Comprises the product of the Upper 
Nile region, and that grown around Berber and the 
Soudan, very little being produced in the country itself. 
Being the product of different districts, they vary in size 
and quality, ranging from small to medium, are palish- 
green in color, flat or regular in shape, and possess 
superior drinking properties ; so much so that many ot 
the smaller bean varieties are put up in Mocha bales at 
Alexandria and sold under the name of " Short-berry 
Mocha," being shipped principally to France and 
England, where they are known to the initiated as 
"Alexandrian or Egyptian Mochas." 

Nubian — Is a small-bean coffee, hard and flinty in 
texture, oval in shape, pale-green in color, heavy in body, 
and unusually rich in flavor. This variety is usually 
forwarded to Alexandria for conversion into a so-called 
Mocha, seldom finding its way into the American or 
European markets under its legitimate name. 

Zanzibar — Is medium in size, regular in appearance, 
full in body and pleasing in flavor, but also very limited 
in quantity. Increased eflbrt is now being made, how- 
ever, by the French, German and Italian colonists to 
increase and extend its cultivation in that country, 

Mozambique— The product is fairly good, ranking 
with the average of mild coffees, medium in size, green- 
ish in color, heavy and mellow in the cup. 



108 AFRICAK COFFEES. 



Madagascar — Grown on the immense island of that 
name, to the east, is a small-bean variety, solid and firm, 
but shorter and rounder than the latter. It is of a pea- 
green color when first picked, but gradually assumes 
that of a silver-gray as it matures ; in body it is round 
and full, in flavor rich and fragrant. The supply of this 
variety is very small when compared with the extent of 
area that may be utilized for its profitable culture in that 
island, the entire product being chiefly retained for home 
consumption, only small lots occasionally reaching the 
outer world. 

Bourbon — Is a small, hard and flinty bean, being 
chiefly mountain grown, pale-yellow in color and closely 
resembling the Arabian product, for which coffee it is 
extensively substituted, large quantities of the smaller 
beans being annually shipped to Aden to be repacked in 
the inimitable Mocha bales and sold as " genuine Aden 
Mocha." The larger beans are usually exported to 
France and the continent, where it is held in high esteem 
for its rich, fragrant flavor and aroma, but rarely found 
in the American market unless specially ordered. 

Mauritius — Like Bourbon is also an island coffee, 
the average bean being medium-sized, heavy and well 
developed, light-green in color, full in body and mellow 
in flavor, the liquor, in general, comparing favorably with 
that of finest of the mild grades. The smaller beans 
are separated and sold for shipment to Aden for the pur- 
pose of adulterating, or, what is worse, substituting for 
Mocha, where it sinks its identity, reappearing in the 
European market as "Short-berry" Mocha coffee. 

More or less Coffee is also produced in Sofala, Somali, 
and the Soudan, in Usumbara, the Zambesi, Nyassa, 



ASIAN COFFEES. I09 



Nyanza, and other districts as far west as the base of the 
KiUimanjaro mountains, the total yield of which, how- 
ever, so far as its influence on the world's supply is con- 
sidered, is insignificant, the export capacity of the whole 
not exceeding 150,000 pounds annually. The entire 
product of the Eastern provinces of Africa taken in con- 
nection with the comparatively small crops raised on the 
West coast makes that country contribute only between 
5,000 to 6,000 tons to the world's supply, this amount 
including all coffees grown in Egypt and the interior 
countries of the continent of Africa. 

Comprise Arabian, East Indian, Ceylon, Malayan and 
all coffees grown in the Straits Settlements. 

Is universally but erroneously known to trade as the 
far-famed " Mocha," as no coffee is or ever was grown 
there. Mocha, itself, being comparatively a modern 
town, which rose with the coffee trade to a short-lived 
prosperity, the term " Mocha" as applied to Arabian 
coffee, being derived solely from the shipment of its 
product from there in former times. The internal dis- 
orders of Arabia and the efforts of Mohamed Ali to 
make the coffee trade pass through India accelerated its 
decline, the place being now nothing more than a mere 
village. The shipment of coffee is no longer carried on 
there, being transferred further south to the ports of 
Aden and Hodeida, yet, although, still known to trade 
as " Mocha," and notwithstanding the fact that Arabian 
coffee has been popularly and commercially known for 
centuries as Mocha, it never produced any coffee, being 
situated as it is in a sterile plain. Seeing that Arabia is the 



ARABIAN COFFEE. 



parent soil of most of the coffees of commerce, and com- 
paratively little known as a coffee producing country, it 
may be interesting to transcribe some particulars of the 
cultivation and trade in the article in that country. The 
Coffee plant is claimed by some authorities to be indige- 
nous to Arabia, and by others to be simply exotic, and 
as having been introduced there from Abyssinia, but 
at what period of the world's history has never been 
definitely decided. The plant or its product is not men- 
tioned in the Koran, was certainly unknown to Ma- 
homet, and his contemporaries make no reference to it 
up to the seventh century, although the many commod- 
ities and beverages in use among his followers in Mecca 
and Medina during his Calyphate are accurately and 
minutely detailed by his biographers, both Arab and 
Christian. But while to Abyssinia belongs the honor 
of its first discovery, it is to Arabia that the civilized 
world is indebted, not only for the first knowledge of 
the plant and its virtues, but also for the first plants 
from which it is now so extensively propagated as well 
as for the first knowledge of preparing it in liquid form. 
Yet, although exotic to Arabia, it has been cultivated 
there for centuries, attaining its most extensive distribu- 
tion and highest standard of production in the province 
of Yemen, a highland country formed by a labyrinth of 
precipitant hills and fertile valleys, the air being pure, 
and even cold in some parts. These mountains are well 
supplied with water, but no considerable rivers find their 
way from them to the sea, tropical evaporation, coupled 
with the light and porous quality of the soil, drying up 
the torrent beds ; nor do any natural lakes exist there. 
Artificial pools and reservoirs have, however, been con- 
structed, in which water is preserved all the year round, 
and are numerous in the district. 



ARABIAN COFFEE. 



In the province of Yemen, where the best Mocha cof- 
fees are produced, the plant is cultivated in both situa- 
tions, upland and lowland, that raised on the latter 
being greatly inferior to that cultivated on the former 
sites. The best being that grown on the mountain slopes 
under the greatest difficulties and natural disadvantages 
of climate, soil and site, the small gardens, for they 
cannot be called plantations, being situated on terraces 
ranged one above the other, forming an amphitheatre on 
the mountain slope and literally covering its sides from 
almost base to apex. The plant is cultivated throughout 
more than half these upland districts, the finest qualities 
of the berry being produced on the western slopes of the 
mountains in the neighborhood of Bulgosa and Sanaar, 
the capital of the province, at elevations estimated at 
5,000 feet above sea-level. The soil in these situations 
is composed chiefly of basaltic columns, the detached 
rocks forming grand objects of landscape, especially 
where cascades of water rush from their summits. Indi- 
cations of volcanic action, long since extant abound ; 
basalt formations comprising a considerable portion of 
the soil in the most favored gardens of the coffee-bearing 
districts, while in others it is composed of Jurassic rock 
basalt-granite patches also occurring in many of them. 
The basalts are of great utility to the inhabitants of 
this region, the columns, which are usually separated, 
serving as steps where the ascent is difficult, and as walls 
to support the gardens of coffee trees, which are prin- 
cipally situated on the steep declivities of the mountain 
sides, and although requiring the well-diffused heat of 
an equatorial climate and a rich soil for its most success- 
ful and profitable growth, it is in this region and under 
these great disadvantages and peculiarities of soil, climate 
and situation — hot, sandy and stony — that the far-famed 



112 ARABIAN COFFEE. 



Mocha coffee obtains its finest, richest and most valuable 
developments, and to which its superior excellence is 
attributed. 

The gardens are arranged on rocky terraces, situated 
one above the other, the slopes being densely covered 
and close together and are watered from large reservoirs 
built upon the heights above them, into which spring 
water is collected and sprinkled in a novel and ingenious 
manner, being first conducted to the top terrace and then 
allowed to fall gradually from one terrace to another, 
where the plant and shade grow so thick together that 
the sun's rays can hardly penetrate among the branches. 
The plants yield ripe fruit twice a year and frequently a 
third crop is gathered, the produce of the latter is, how- 
ever, greatly inferior to that of the previous ones. The 
cultivation and preparation of coffee in Arabia is also 
of the simplest and most primitive kind. When the 
berries have been gathered they are carefully and assid- 
uously picked over and separated by hand by experienced 
pickers and sorters. So constant and frequent is this 
selecting and separating process carried on, that a grad- 
uation almost as regular as the degrees upon a map may 
be discerned in the grades and qualities of Mocha coffee. 
The operations of hulling and cleaning being performed 
with the utmost seriousness and scrupulous exactness, 
reminding one of the diligence ascribed to diamond 
searchers and gold hunters, when sorting the torrent 
sands for the minute but precious treasure. 

The coffee is dispatched by caravan from the interior 
to the ports of Aden and Hodeida at almost every 
season of the year, but principally in February, March 
and April, the export consisting of crude and prepared 
beans ; the former is dried in the husk, and is termed 
by the Arabs "Jaffal coffee." The dealers are chiefly 



ARABIAN COFFEE. 



Arabs, who frequently barter English manufactured 
goods for the article, the producers seldom attending 
the seaport markets. The principal coffee dealers at 
the shipping ports being Arabs from Hadramant, Syri- 
ans, Armenians, Bhuddists, Brahmins and Musselmans 
from Hindustan, who also trade in drapery and other 
English goods, which they send through their agents 
in the interior to pursue the aforesaid system of barter 
for the coffee. There are, however, three or four Anglo- 
Indian firms in Hodeida, and one or two American 
houses in Aden, who deal in coffee on their own account. 
Before reaching the harbor of Aden, from which port 
the coffee intended for the, aristocracy of Alexandria and 
Constantinople is chiefly shipped, the beans are sifted 
and re-sifted by the Arab merchants en I'oute, the best 
being retained for their own use ; the less generous, flat- 
tened, opaque and whitish beans alone reaching their 
destination, the last stage seldom conveying the genuine 
article except on rare occasions, and only then by 
previous arrangement, personal influence or interest. 
That intended for the Syrian and Persian markets is for- 
warded by caravan from Jaffa and Beyrouth under the 
same conditions, as whenever mere sale and trafiic is 
concerned, substitution of an inferior quality or an 
adulteration equivalent to a substitution is frequently 
resorted to in the storehouses of Aden, and the other 
points from which it is forwarded, until whatever Mocha 
coffee intended for the general European or American 
markets is no more the real offspring of the Yemen 
plant than the logwood preparations of a fourth-rate 
wine resembles the pure libation of an Oporto vine- 
yard. 

Arabian coffee, like that of all other countries, though 
one in name is manifold in fact. Geographically they 



114 ARABIAN COFFEE. 



are classified as Yemen and Tehama, but are known to 
trade almost universally as "Mocha" coffee, from being 
at one time all shipped from that port; but since the 
opening of the Suez Canal, the bulk of the crop is now 
shipped from the ports of Aden and Hodeida. 

Yemen Mocha — Is grown on the mountain slopes 
surrounding the towns of Bulgosa, Sanaar and the 
valley of the Oudien, and constitutes the true Mocha 
coffee, which is rarely if ever exported, being consumed 
chiefly within the limits of Arabia itself; very little, so 
little, indeed, of this variety finds its way west of Con- 
stantinople that it is almost inappreciable. Nor, indeed, 
do the latter always get the best or purest, Arabia, Syria, 
Persia and Egypt consuming over two-thirds of the 
limited product of the Yemen hills, the remainder being 
reserved for the Turkish and Armenian seosophagi, from 
which fact it is sometimes termed the "Aristocrat of 
Coffees." 

The true " Mocha " or Yemen bean is exceedingly 
small, hard, round, and symmetrical in form, regular 
and uniform in general appearance, of a translucent, 
olive-green color when new, but assuming a rich semi- 
transparent yellowish hue with age. It is perfectly clean, 
being entirely free from stems, stones, chaff and all other 
extraneous matter. When fresh roasted it exhales a 
pleasing if not delicious odor, not even approached by 
that of any other variety grown or known ; the liquor is 
heavier in body than that of Java, but creamy and rich, 
and the flavor fragrant and aromatic to an eminent degree. 
The superior excellence attributed to this particular vari- 
ety of Mocha coffee is said to be due to two causes, 
first to the extreme dryness of the climate, hard granitic 
nature of the soil, and second to the fact that the berries 



ARABIAN COFFEE. 11$ 

are never picked, but allowe'd to fall from the trees of 
their own accord when ripe, and then allowed to dry 
naturally, after which they are gathered and hulled by 
the simplest and most primitive methods, \vhich process 
of drying cannot be pursued in countries where the rain- 
fall is great, as sudden showers spoil the crop if left 
unprotected. While others claim that the high reputation 
which it so long held in the European markets, is not 
to be ascribed to either superior cultivation or improved 
stock, but to the fact that the coffee was formerly shipped 
to India, and thence by circuitous routes to Europe, so 
that it was generally two to three years old when it reached 
its destination, all coffees improving with age and keeping. 
Still growing as it does high up on the sandy terraces 
of the Yemen hills, sparse of leaves, gaunt and stunted, 
as becomes a plant of the desert as well as from its con- 
densed vitality, it appears difficult to understand the 
aromatic pungency of its small berries, a quality that has 
never been even approached by any achievement of scien- 
tific cultivation, 

Tehama Coffee — Is grown in the low, level sandy 
plain of that name, extending from the Red sea littoral 
to the base of the Yemen hills, formed by the arc of 
their curve, and reaching from the province of Hejaz 
in the north down as far as Aden on the southern ex- 
tremity of the peninsula. As might be expected from its 
geographical situation towards the coast, it is an exceed- 
ingly hot, dry and sandy region, being only of moderate 
fertility, the soil being composed of an agglomeration of 
coral debris. The rains are periodical, sometimes flood- 
ing the plantations, and hardly drying up through the year, 
the coast being indented with several small harbors. 
The coffee produced in this district— like all plain-grown 



il6 OTHER VARIETIES. 



or lowland coffees — is greatly inferior to the mountain pro- 
duct of Yemen. The bean is small, irregular, immature 
and chaffy, having a gnarled or shriveled appearance, 
greenish in color when new but assuming a yellow- 
ish hue as it dries. Being only imperfectly cured it 
frequently contains fragments of hull, fibre and small 
stones. It is invariably "quakery" when roasted, and 
in body and flavor is inferior to the average run of what 
are known in trade as "mild coffees." Yet, though not a 
palatable coffee when drunk alone, it makes a fairly fra- 
grant infusion when combined with a Preanger or other 
good Java. It is principally shipped from Hodeida, now 
the second considerable port ia the Red sea, from which 
it is known to trade as " Hodeida Mocha," and in con- 
tradistinction to that shipped from Aden, and known as 
"Aden Mocha." At Hodeida the coffee is sold in the 
custom house, whither it is brought from the interior. 
The Hodeida dealers also receiving large quantities of 
Malabar, Bourbon and other small-bean varieties to mix 
with or substitute for the original sort 

There are several other varieties known to trade and 
sold as Mocha coffee, but having little or no relation to 
it. Among these are : — 

Lechia. — Shipped from a small port to the north of 
Hodeida and from which it derives its trade name. It is 
very inferior in quality, roasting and drinking poorly, 
and on the whole not a desirable sort. 

Djebelli. — Which is imported into Aden from the 
African coast, and is a mountain-grown coffee possessing 
valuable cup qualities, 



OTHER VARIETIES. II 7 



Berberah. — Also an African coffee recognized by its 
large and tapering bean, heavy body and rich infusion, 
and used principally for mixing with or substituting for 
genuine Mocha coffee. 

Havar. — Another variety of Mocha coffee known to 
trade as "Havar" or " Hazar," which comes from the 
south African coast of the Red sea, is being recently 
shipped from Aden. The bean is long and pointed, 
greenish in cast, and solid in structure; it roasts and 
drinks exceedingly well, being preferred by many con- 
noisseurs to the true Mocha bean. ^ 

Mussowah — Is an Abyssinian variety, previously 
described, deriving its trade name from being shipped 
from that port on the African coast of the Red sea. 

Egyptian Mocha. — In Alexandria, Mocha coffee is 
imitated by the substitution of small-bean African varieties, 
principally produced in Berber, Nubia, Somali and the 
interior of the Soudan, which are carefully picked over 
and assorted by hand, the larger beans being separated 
from the smaller, the better to adapt them to their 
respective markets, bein^ usually shipped to France and 
other continental European countries. 

Arabian or "Mocha" Coffee is put up in large grass- 
mat bales — containing two smaller packages termed 
" quarters " or four termed " eights " — distinctive in shape 
and material, being made of a coarse, grassy substance 
and sewn with a fibrous ligature that becomes excessively 
hard and tough as it seasons. The exports, the amount 
of which it is difficult to determine owing to the fact that 
there is no real custom-house control in the country, 
consists of about 8,000,000 to 10,000,000 pounds only, 
about half of which only is pure Mocha, the product being 
so badly manipulated and so extensively substituted with 
other coffees of foreign origin and inferior quality. 



tl8 KASt-INDiAN COFFEES. 



Unlike tea, coffee was not introduced into India by 
European enterprise, and even in the present day its cul- 
tivation there is largely followed by the natives only. The 
Malabar coast has always enjoyed a direct commerce 
with Arabia, and at an early date in the world's history 
gave many converts to Islam, one of whom, Baba 
Bouden by name, is said to have gone on a pilgrimage 
to Mecca and to have brought back with him " seven 
coffee-berries," which he planted on the hill range of 
Mysore and which is still called after him, and which, 
according to local tradition, occurred about two centuries 
ago. The shrubs thus said to be sown lived on, but their 
systematic cultivation did not spread until the beginning of 
the present century. While another account states that 
the coffee-plant was first introduced into India, on the 
Malabar coast, by the Arabs themselves, as far back as 
1740, yet no official mention is made of the plant or its 
product in that country up to 1822, when its cultivation as 
a curiosity was first began in the Wynaad district, another 
plantation being formed later in the adjoining district of 
Manjarabad. The Baba Bouden range, in the State of 
Mysore, also witnessed the first opening of a coffee planta- 
tion by an English planter in 1840, the success of this 
experiment leading to the extension of coffee cultivation in 
the neighboring districts of Madras and Malabar. In 1 840, 
a plantation was also started in Manautoddy, and in 1842 
it was found growing well in Belgaum. From 1842 to 
1 860, however, the enterprise made but slow progress, 
but since the latter date it has spread with great rapidity 
along the whole line of the Western Ghauts, clearing 
away the primeval forest and opening up a new era of 



east-indiAn coffees. flQ 

prosperity to the laboring classes in that country, its cul- 
tivation for commercial uses increasing at a most remark- 
able rate. 

Coffee at the present time in India is grown all along 
the summits and slopes of the Western Ghauts from the 
northern limits of Kanura south to Cape Comorin, the 
chief centres of production being located in the Presi- 
dencies of Madras, Mysore, Malabar, Coorg and Travan- 
core, attempts being also made to introduce the plant into 
the Bengal district of Chittagongand the northern districts 
of Nepaul, the Punjaub and British Burmah, the cultiva- 
tion extending within the past few years to the Shevaroy 
hills in the Salem district as well as to the Neilgherry 
and Pulmey mountains in Madras, the slopes adjacent 
to Octacamund being literally covered with coffee 
plantations on every side. In India, after the berries, 
or "cherries," as they are called there, have been 
harvested, they are cured in one of two ways, one 
of which is to pulp them in the soft state, the coffee 
being known as " Cherry -dried," while by the other 
they are dried first and the pulp removed by a 
huller. Where the latter method is adopted, they are 
spread upon terraces and there kept until complete 
desiccation takes place, the coffee prepared in this 
manner being known as "thick-hull" or "sun-dried" 
coffee. They are classified in trade as " Malabar," 
" Mysore," " Wynaad," " Tellicherry," " Coorg," " Neil- 
gherry" and " Travancore," grading commercially in 
the order named. 

Malabar — Produced on the western slopes of the 
Ghaut mountains, is a small, hard, whitish bean, closely 
resembling a Bourbon, being frequently shipped to Aden 
for substitution or conversion into Mocha coffee. It is 



120 teAST-INDIAN COFFEES. 



full in body, high in color and rich in flavor, particularly 
when old, ranking high commercially in the European 
markets, where it is principally disposed of. 

Mysore — Is a mountain coffee grown on the slopes 
bf the Eastern Ghauts, and, like all mountain-grown 
coffees, is large or bold in style, bluish-green in color, 
hard and solid in texture, heavy in body, but apt to be 
somewhat " grassy " in flavor when new, mellowing con- 
siderably, however, with age. It commands a higher 
price in the English market than Java, not on account 
of its intrinsic worth, but from the fact that English 
merchants favor the products of their own colonies to 
the prejudice of all others. 

Wynaad — Is simply a Malabar coffee, grown in the 
interior of that province, and deriving its trade-name 
from the district of growth, and possessing the same 
intrinsic qualities of body, color and flavor, being heavy, 
rich and fragrant in the cup. 

Tellicherry — Is another variety of Malabar, deriving 
its commercial cognomen from the port of shipment, but 
is generally conveyed to the coast for curing, and is 
classed commercially with it, being used for the same 
purpose of mixing or substituting for Mocha. 

Coorg — Is a plain-grown or lowland coffee, large 
and flat in appearance, dark-greenish when new, but 
becoming a dull-white with age, and while regular and 
uniform in the roasted state is apt to be " quakery." 
The liquor is thin and flat in the cup, while the flavor 
is somewhat "mawkish " to the taste. 

Neilgherry— Although a mountain coffee, seems to 
be an exception to the general character of this variety, 
for while the bean is fairly large in size and uniform in 



EAST-INDIAN COFFEES. 121 

appearance, it is usually moist and soft in substance, 
losing heavily in the roast, and yielding a flat, almost 
insipid liquor. 

Travancore — Grown in the extreme south, is a low- 
land variety having an average-sized, flat, but whitish 
bean, soft or " spongy " when new, but becoming light 
and brittle as it dries. It is invariably " quakery " in 
the roast, thin and watery in the cup, and lacking in even 
an approach to fragrance. 

Burmah CoflFee — Is a comparatively new variety to 
commerce, being only recently introduced, and very 
limited in supply to the present. The bean is fairly 
large and regular in form, greenish in color and soft 
in texture in the natural state, tough or " leathery " when 
roasted, and wild or "grassy" in the infusion — defects 
due to its newness, which may, however disappear in the 
later crops. A very large portion of the surface of Burmah 
is admirably adapted for the cultivation of fine coffees, but 
it still remains in its primeval state of unproductive jungle, 
owing to the entire absence of natural energy on the part 
of the natives, who have been described as the laziest under 
th-e sun. At the present time, however, the government is 
making liberal offers to Europeans and others who under- 
stand the art of coffee-planting in order to develop the 
industry in that country; such settlers being offered free 
grants of land in the celebrated Tavoy district, the only 
conditions being the cost of survey and demarcation. 

India coffees are classed in the English market as 
"Bold," "Middling "and "Small," the bulk of the 
small-bean Mysore, Malabar and Wynaad being shipped 
to Aden and Alexandria, where they are repacked and 
sold as Mocha. The average quantity and value ot 
the coffee product of India is about 40,000,000 pounds, 



12^ CEYLON COFFEfiS. 



valued at ^^75,000,000, fully one-half of which is retained 
for home consumption, the balance being shipped to 
England and France, which are the two next largest 
consumers of India coffee, although in both countries 
it is subject to excessively heavy duties. The average 
product per acre is only about 350 pounds, but the 
drought having affected the plantations would of itself 
sufficiently account for the diminished exports if the 
leaf disease and borer did not also help to keep down 
the yield. 

The history of coffee cultivation in the island of Cey- 
lon is one fraught with interest and full of instructive 
lessons, which, since the year 1845, has assumed a 
position of great and ever-increasing importance. Al- 
though coffee is claimed to have been an article of 
growth and export from Ceylon even as far back as the time 
of the Portuguese, it only grew wild there without any 
attempt at cultivation. Small patches of it were to be 
found around the Kandyan villages, growing in wild 
luxuriance, the berries being gathered before they were 
ripe and imperfectly cured, seldom possessed much flavor, 
they were but lightly esteemed as an article of commerce. 
Its systematic cultivation was first commenced in 1824, 
by Sir E. Barnes, the then governor, who hoped by his 
example to introduce coffee planting by Europeans into 
the island. Up to 1834, however, public attention does 
not seem to have been occupied with the industry, but in 
that year the falling off in supplies from other countries 
brought capitalists into the field, and when, in 1836, the 
duty in England was reduced to six pence per pound, a 
great impulse was given to coffee planting in Ceylon. 
Duringthat and the following year about7,oooacres of the 



CEYLON COFFEES. 123 



finest lands were purchased for the purpose, until, at the - 
end of a few years, it became a matter of notoriety that 
the soil and climate of Ceylon were capable of producing 
coffee equal in value to most kinds then grown, when the 
influx of capital from England for investment in this 
new branch of industry became simply enormous. In 
1840, nearly 10,000 acres of mountain forest were 
felled and planted in coffee, and in an exceedingly short 
space of time the sale of crown-lands for coiTee culture 
averaged 40,000 acres per annum. The mountain ranges 
on all sides of the district of Kandy became speedily 
covered with plantations, the great valleys of Ambo- 
gamoa, Doombera, Kotmalie and Pusilawa were occupied 
by speculators, others settling in the steep passes of 
Neurailla and penetrating the Ouvah and Badulla 
districts, coffee-trees quickly blooming on every solitary 
hill, even up to and around the very base of Adam's 
peak. The first ardent adventurers pioneering their way 
through pathless woods, living in log-cabins whilst felling 
the forest and making their preliminary preparations for 
planting, until, in a few years, the paths by which 
they came were converted into roadways and their 
cabins replaced by comfortable " bungalows." The 
coffee cultivation mania in Ceylon, however, reached 
its chmax in 1845, when the governor, council, mili- 
tary, judges, civil servants, and even the clergy pene- 
trated the hills in their mad haste to become purchasers 
of crown lands for coffee growing. The .East India Com- 
pany's officers crowded to Ceylon to invest their savings 
in coffee lands, capitalists from England at the same 
time arriving by every vessel, the bulk of the emigrants 
as a class being more than ordinarily aristocratic, and 
who, if not already opulent, were still in haste to become 
more so. So dazzling was the prospect that expenditure 



124 CEYLON COFFEES. 



was unlimited, its profusion being only equalled by the 
ignorance and inexperience of those to whom it was 
intrusted ; five millions sterling being sunk in the " Coffee 
craze " in less than as many years. The rush for coffee 
lands at this period in Ceylon was only paralleled by 
the movement towards the gold mines of California and 
Australia, but with this painful difference, that the wild 
enthusiasts in Ceylon instead of thronging to disinter 
were hurrying to bury their gold, for in the very midst 
of their visions of riches a crash suddenly came which 
awakened the victims to the reality of their ruin. The 
financial panic of 1845 in England rapidly extended its 
destructive influences to Ceylon ; remittances ceased, 
credit failed, prices fell, and the first announcement on 
the subsidence of the turmoil was the doom of protec- 
tion and the withdrawal of the distinctive duty which 
had so long screened the British coffee plantations from 
competition with those of Java and Brazil. The con- 
sternation thus produced in Ceylon was proportionate to 
the extravagance and hopes that were blasted, coffee 
plantations being forced into the market, and many sold 
off for a twentieth part of the outlay incurred in forming 
them, while others that could not be sacrificed at any 
price were abandoned and allowed to return to their 
natural jungle. For over three years the enterprise 
appeared paralyzed, the ruined disappeared and the timid 
retreated, but those who, combining judgment with 
capital, persevered, succeeded eventually, not alone in 
restoring energy to the enterprise, but in imparting to it 
the prudence and experience gleaned from former similar 
disasters. Still, the crisis, had it not been precipitated 
by the calamities of 1845, must have ensued eventually, 
from the indiscretion of the previous period; and the 
healthy condition which coffee planting appears to 



CEYLON COFFEES. 1 25 



have attained at the present day in Ceylon results from 
the correction of the errors then committed ; and it is 
no exaggeration to state that there is not a single well- 
established principle now governing the management 
of the plantations and the conduct of the proprietors 
that was not preceded by a directly opposite policy 
in 1845. 

Since the explosion of this second edition of the 
"South-sea bubble" in Ceylon, the island has made 
rapid strides in coffee growing, the mountain forests 
have been replaced by extensive plantations, of which 
there are at the present day no less than i,ooo 
under cultivation, yielding an average annual crop of 
nearly 80,000,000 pounds exclusive of that raised by the 
natives. Observation has also since discerned the true 
tests of soil, climate and aspect, former delusions as to 
high altitudes have been exploded, unprofitable districts 
avoided and unproductive localities abandoned. And in 
lieu of the belief that the coffee tree, once rooted, would 
continue ever after to bear crops Avithout further atten- 
tion or manure, and flourish perennially in defiance of 
weeds and neglect, every plantation is now tended like 
a garden, and the soil enriched artificially in proportion 
to the produce it bears, expenditures also being reduced 
within the bounds of discretion. An acre of forest land 
can now be purchased for one-tenth of what it cost in 
1844, and though the extravagant prices and the still 
more extravagant expectations of that period have been 
entirely dissipated, coffee planting at the present day in 
Ceylon under careful supervision, promises as sound an 
investment as moderate enterprise can hope for. Sys- 
tematic coffee cultivation is almost exclusively con- 
fined to the hill region, which embraces the districts of 
Kandy, Pusilawa, Doombera, Kotmalie and Ambogama, 



126 CEYLON COFFEES. 



although irregular native gardens are to be found every- 
where in the southwestern portion of the island, even 
close to the seashore. The favorite and most productive 
elevation is, however, between 3,000 and 4,000 feet 
above sea-level, but in a few exceptional cases planta- 
tions descend almost to the foot of the hills, others being 
situated nearly 6,000 feet above. While native gardens, 
sometimes bearing good crops, may be met with along 
the coast actually at sea-level; in such instances, how- 
ever, the gardens are limited in extent, and are generally 
richly manured and well watered during the dry season. 
The principal coffee-producing zone of Ceylon of 
the present day is chiefly situated in what is known 
as the Gampola district, in which the scientific cul- 
tivation of coffee was first attempted, and the point at 
which the great roads converge connecting the rich 
coffee districts of Doombera, Kotmalie and Pusilawa 
with the ports of Kandy and Colombo. The soil and 
situation of the Gampola district have proved so favor- 
able to the growth of the coffee-plant that there is hardly 
one of the magnificent hills seen from it that has not been 
taken possession of by planters, the plantations being 
situated chiefly in the mountain ranges on all sides of it. 
Ceylon coffees are classified commercially as " Native," 
" Plantation," " Liberian " and "Mountain" or "Mocha," 
the latter being nothing more than a small-bean planta- 
tion coffee usually separated. 

Native. — What is known to commerce as " Native 
Ceylon " is principally produced in the district of Ouvah 
by native growers, from which fact it derives its trade- 
name. Being a plain-grown or lowland coffee, the bean 
is large and flat in style, greenish, moist and "flabby" 
when first picked, but becomhig almost white, broken 



CEYLON COFFEES. I 27 



and " chaffy " as it dries. It is a poor " roaster," 
being invariably " quakery," weak and thin in the 
infusion, and devoid of any distinctive flavor or aroma 
in the cup. 

Plantation — Derives its trade-name from its being 
systematically cultivated in regularly-laid-out plantations, 
by scientific methods under intelligent management, and 
is without doubt one of the finest varieties grown, rank- 
ing high commercially for its intrinsic value. The raw or 
natural bean is large, bold, symmetrical and exceedingly 
well developed, of a light bluish or translucent-green 
tint or cast, very regular and invariably uniform in gen- 
eral appearance. It roasts even and handsomely, as fine, if 
not more so, than any variety known, while in the infusion 
it is rich and strong, but smooth and creamy in body, 
fragrant and aromatic in flavor ; an equal quantity of this 
variety yielding a heavier-bodied and richer liquor than 
that of the finest Java, but will not be quite as high in 
flavor. 

Liberian-Ceylon — Is produced from a transplant of 
the Liberian species, which, owing to the destruction 
caused by the " leaf disease " on the Ceylon plantations, 
has been introduced to that island, on account of its 
being considered much stronger, hardier and better able 
to withstand disease than the> native trees, but while it 
was found specially adapted to the plains and low-lying 
situations, it would not bear so well on the upland or 
mountain slopes. A hybrid species was at length evolved, 
the product of which is known to trade as " Ceylon- 
Liberian," the bean of which in the natural state is not 
quite as large as that of the parent plant, not as convex 
in shape, the color being paler, bordering on a rich yel- 
low instead of brown, while the infusion though not as 



128 CEYLON COFFEES. 



heavy in body or dark in color, is much smoother and 
more palatable, the too-heavy properties of the original 
being greatly modified by climatic and other causes. 

Ceylon-Mocha — Is a small bean, mountain-grown, 
coffee, very even and uniform, usually separated from the 
regular plantation varisty. The raw or unroasted bean 
is of a steel-blue or silvery-grey color, according to age, 
exceedingly rich in liquor and fragrant in flavor, and con- 
sidered by some experts to be equal in^drinking qualities 
to any variety grown, being frequently shipped to Aden 
for substitution or mixing with Mocha coffee. 

Ceylon coffees are usually packed in casks and in 
hogsheads (except Native, which is put up in bags), 
the former weighing 400 and the latter 1,000 pounds, 
and shipped to England, where it commands a high 
price, relatively, and where they are graded as No. i 
(largest) ; 2 (medium) ; 3 (small), and " Triage," or com- 
mon, but generally as "Plantation" and "Native" in the 
American market. In 1880 it was estimated that the 
capital invested in coffee culture amounted to over 
^70,000,000, a notable increase having taken place since 
that year, there being at" the present time some forty 
districts on the island in which coffee culture is carried 
on for commercial uses. While the native product is 
usually calculated to extend over 50,000 acres, which, 
however-, varies very much, according to the character ot 
the season, the prices obtained, and the cheapness 01 
money. The annual exports are about 80,000,000 
pounds, giving an average yield from old and new 
plantations of a little over 400 pounds per acre. 

Include the products of the islands of Java, Sumatra, 
Celebes, the Sunda and many other of the smaller island^ 
of the Malayan Archipelago, 



JAVA COFFEES. I 29 



Java is a generic term applied to all coffees grown in 
the Eastern Archipelago, and is almost a synonym for 
coffee. While the coffee plant, which is only known in 
Java by its European appellation and its intimate relation 
with European despotism, was first introduced into that 
island by the Dutch at the close of the seventeenth 
century, and has ever since remained one of their chief 
articles of exclusive monopoly. The labor by which it 
is planted and its produce collected is included among 
the oppressions or " forced services " of the natives at 
inadequate rates. Previous to the year 1808 the cultiva- 
tion of coffee in Java was principally confined to the 
Sunda districts, there being, up to that year, but few 
plantations comparatively in the eastern districts, the 
product of which they were capable of yielding not 
amounting to one-tenth of the whole. But under the 
rapacious administration of the Dutch East India Com- 
pany and government the cultivation of coffee has 
usurped the soil of almost the entire island, otherwise 
destined for yielding the subsistence of the people, the 
cultivation of all other products being made subservient 
to it and the withering effects of a government monopoly, 
extending their influence indiscriminately throughout 
every province and district in tRe island. In the Sunda 
districts particularly each native family is compelled to 
care for 1,000 coffee plants, and in the eastern districts, 
where new and extensive plantations are being formed 
from time to time in soils and situations in many instances 
by no means favorable to its profitable culture, 650 
plants is the prescribed allotment. No negligence can 
be practised in the performance of this duty, the whole 
operations of planting, picking and pulping being 



130 JAVA COFFEES. 



conducted under the immediate superintendence of the 
government officials, who select the sites where the new- 
plantations are to be formed, seeing that they are pre- 
served from weeds and rank grasses and overseeing its 
selection and removal to the "go-downs" or warehouses 
when prepared. Under this system the Sunda districts are 
estimated to yield an annual produce of 100,000 piculs, and 
it was at one time calculated that the young plantations of 
the eastern districts, when they should come into full bear- 
ing,, would produce an equal quantity, but in the latter 
section many of the plantations had been formed on ill- 
judged sites, the natives being also averse to the nev/ 
and additional burden which this increase of cultivation 
imposed upon their labor. Had the system been per- 
severed in or enforced by a despotic authority, it is 
questionable whether the quantity anticipated in the 
above estimate, or even one-half of it, would have been 
obtained from the eastern districts. The Sundas living 
in an island and mountainous country, and having been 
long accustomed to the hardships of coffee culture, are 
less sensible of its pressure than the rest of their coun- 
trymen, time and habit having reconciled them to a sys- 
tem of servitude, which was at first revolting to them, 
and a state of slavery, which the philanthropist laments 
as degrading, is scarcely felt to be even a grievance by 
themselves. Instances,* however, are not wanting in 
which the usual measure of exaction having been sur- 
passed they have been awakened to a sense of their 
wretchedness, a government of colonial monopolists, 
eager only for profit, and heedless of the sources from 
which it is derived, subjecting its native subjects to priva- 
tions and distresses, the recital of which shock the ear 
of humanity. In brief, the system of coffee culture in 
the island of Java has sometimes been so severely exacted 



JAVA COFFEES. I3I 



that, together with the other constant and heavy 
demands made upon them by the government authority 
on the native labor of the country, that they deprived 
the unfortunate peasants of the time necessary to raise 
food for their own support, many thus perishing by 
famine, while others fled to the mountains, where, rais- 
ing a scanty subsistence in patches, or often dependent 
for it upon the roots of the forest, they congratulated 
themselves on their escape from the reach of their 
oppressors ; numbers of these people, with their descend- 
ants, remaining in these haunts to the present time. In 
their annual migrations they frequently pass over the 
richest lands, which still remain uncultivated, awaiting 
their return to till it, but they prefer their wild independ- 
ence and precarious subsistence to the horrors of being 
again subjected to forced servitude and forced deliveries 
at inadequate compensation. 

In the Java highlands the tree yields fruii for a period 
of twenty years, while on the plains or lowlands it seldom 
attains a greater age than nine or ten, bearing only dur- 
ing six or seven of these, the fruit being larger compara- 
tively, but the flavor less as a general rule. About the end 
of the rainy season such plants as have not thriven are 
replaced by others and the plantations cleared, this latter 
operation in well-managed plantations being generally 
performed from three to four times in the year, the tree 
being never topped or pruned, but universally allowed to 
grow in all its native luxuriance. In this state it often, in 
favored situations, reaches a height of sixteen feet, and 
plants eight inches broad have been frequently procured 
from the trunks. The average product of a coffee tree in 
Java is not estimated at much more than i ]/^ pounds, 
but there are instances on record where as much as from 
twenty to thirty pounds have been yielded by a single 



132 JAVA COFFEES. 



plant in a season. Again, in Java there does not appear 
to be any fixed or certain season for the plant to arrive 
at maturity, as in the Western countries, the gathering 
usually commencing in June or July, and it is not until 
late in the following April that the entire crop is 
delivered to the go-downs. The picking season in gen- 
eral, however, consists of three pickings or crops of 
which the first or "roor-pluk," which is small, begins 
in February, the second or " main-pluk " in May or 
June, when the heaviest portion is gathered. It is also 
termed the "fuU-pluk," from being the most abundant of 
the season the third or " after-pluk," being what is left 
to open on the trees, may be considered more of a glean- 
ing, as it is merely a general sweep of the fallen berries. 
When the berries become of a dark crimson color they 
are plucked off one by one with the assistance of a light 
bamboo ladder, the greatest care being taken not to 
shake off the blossoms which still remain on the tree or 
to pluck the unripe fruit. The women and children of 
the country usually do the picking, the men attending to 
the heavier work around the plantations. Attached to 
every village near which there are coffee plantations of 
any extent, there is a " drying-house," to which the 
newly-gathered coffee is carried and where it is placed on 
hurdles about four feet from the floor, under which a 
slow wood-fire is kept up during the night; the roof is 
opened in the mornings and evenings to admit the air, 
the berries being frequently stirred meanwhile to prevent 
fermentation. As the excessive heat of the sun is con- 
sidered prejudicial, the roof of the "drying-house" is 
closed during mid-day, this operation being continued 
until the husk is thoroughly dried. The coffee dried 
in this manner is generally small, sea-green or grayish 
in color and is supposed to acquire a peculiar flavor 



JAVA COFFEES. 13^ 



from the smoke, although it does not appear that any- 
particular kind of wood is used as fuel. On the other 
hand, when the coffee is dried in the sun the bean 
becomes of a pale yellowish color, is larger in size, 
specifically lighter in weight and more pungent in 
flavor than the former. The most common method of 
pulping in Java among the natives is to pound the ber- 
ries %vhen dried in a bag made of buffalo hide, care being 
taken not to break or mutilate the beans. A mill of the 
most elementary construction is, however, sometimes 
used for the purpose, but is said not to answer as well. 
When the operations of pulping and cleaning are com- 
pleted the coffee is then put in bags and baskets and 
stood on raised platforms until the period of delivery 
arrives, when it is carried to the " go-downs " or store- 
houses, sometimes by men but more generally on the 
backs of buffaloes and mules in strings of from 1,500 to 
2,000 at a time. In the Sunda district there are three 
principal depots for receiving the coffee from the culti- 
vators — Chikan, Karang and Buitzenorg. From Buit- 
zenorg it is either sent direct to Batavia by land in carts 
or by way of Linkong, whence it is forwarded in boats 
by the Chidana river, while from Chikan the coffee is 
sent in boats down the river Chitaram and thence along 
the sea-coast to Batavia, where it is received into exten- 
sive warehouses and from which it is in turn generally 
exported to the European and American markets. 

Up to a very recent period almost all coffee in Java 
was cultivated by the natives under supervision of the 
Dutch government, which had a monopoly of the 
product, deriving an enormous revenue from its cultiva- 
tion. Under this system, each family was compelled to 
cultivate, pick, dry, hull and deliver the coffee at the 
nearest government warehouse for transport to the port 



134 JAVA COFFEES. 



of shipment, the natives being allowed but a small per- 
centage of the crop as compensation for their labor in 
many instances, but more generally the government plac- 
ing a figure so low as to enable it to sell the coffee at an 
enormous profit, and also deducting again a heavy duty 
from the gross price paid to the growers, thereby deriv- 
ing an almost fabulous revenue from this system of 
cultivation. 

It is dif^cult to state what recompense the native 
cultivator of coffee receives in Java for his services and 
his product, the complicated system of accounts which 
prevails there seem only calculated to puzzle or mystif)' 
the investigator and allow the Dutch commissary to 
derive an income of from eighty to one hundred thousand 
dollars per annum at the expense of the government by 
whom he is employed, on the one hand, and that of the 
natives whom he oppresses, on the other. Latterl}% 
however, it has been directed that the cultivators should 
receive, on delivery at the government storehouses, 
" three rix-dollars (copper) for each " mountain " picul (225 
pounds) of cofTee, being very little more than one dollar 
per hundred, while this same cofTee has frequently been 
sold in Batavia, within fifty miles of the spot where it 
was raised, at twenty dollars per hundred, and has been 
seldom sold in the European or American markets at less 
than twenty cents per pound. It is, also, difificult to fix 
the exact rate at which the coffee might be produced 
under the free system, but that it can be raised for 
exportation at ten dollars per hundred with profit is 
beyond doubt. The price paid the natives, however, is 
deemed liberal by the Dutch government, though in 
many cases it has to be transported over sixty miles of 
an almost impassible country, where two men are required 
to carry a hundred pounds of coffee on their shoulders 



JAVA COFFEES. I35 



and at an expense of labor which one would suppose at 
least equal to the renumeration. 

All the available mountain slopes on the island of 
Java are literally covered with coffee plantations, owned 
and operated by the Dutch government, which assigns 
to each Javanese family the cultivation and care of from 
600 to 1,000 trees under severe penalties, the natives 
being compelled to deliver their crops, hulled and cleaned, 
to the nearest government stores at the end of the harvest, 
accepting in return whatever price the government is 
pleased to put on it. Considerable coffee is, however, 
cultivated by the natives themselves, independently of that 
raised directly for the government, being chiefly grown 
along the borders of the government plantations and 
other unused patches, as well as along the fences around 
their farms, being generally raised in the shade; the berry 
of some of this coffee attains a high excellence rivalling 
if not actually excelling the government product in many 
instances. 

A considerable portion of the peasantry having 
— as already observed — been long accustomed to the 
cultivation of coffee, it is owing to their skill and experi- 
ence that the coffee owes its excellence as much as to any 
direct knowledge, superintendence or interference of the 
Dutch officials, who derive their information from the 
natives, having little more to do than occasionally ride 
around the plantations with a pompous suite, keep the 
accounts and examine the coffee, as it is received from 
the cultivators. The plantations are generally laid out in 
squares, the distances between the plants varying accord- 
ing to the fertility of the soil, that is, in a soil not con- 
sidered fertile, a distance of six feet is preserved, and in 
each interval is planted a " dadap " tree for the purpose 
of affording shade to the plants; while in a rich soil where 



136 JAVA COFFEES. 



the plant grows more luxuriantly, fewer shade trees are 
required and the plants are placed at greater distances 
from each other. But in Java, a certain degree of shade 
appears to be necessary at all times to the health of the 
coffee plant, especially during its earlier stages, and in low 
situations, for which purpose the dadap tree is found to 
be better calculated for affording this protection than any 
other kind in the country, it being a common saying on 
that island that "where the dadap flourishes, there also 
will flourish coffee." But it must not be inferred from 
this that they are always constant or even necessary 
companions, for in the highlands many of the most 
flourishing plantations are to be observed with but very 
few dadaps in the vicinity. 

Coffee is cultivated for commercial use in all of the 
twenty-two residencies into which the island is divided, 
including Bantam, Batavia, Bezoeki, Bagelen, Banjoe- 
wanjie and Banjoemas, Cheribon, Japara, Kadoe, 
Kediri and Krawang, Madioen, Rembang, Preanger, 
Probolingo, Passoeren and Pekalongan, Soerabaya, 
Soerakarta and Djokjakarta, Bali, Timour, Malang and 
Samarang, each of which residencies or districts contain- 
ing from five to fifty plantations, by which they are further 
distinguished. In trade they are generally divided into 
"Government" and "Free Coffees," the free cultivation 
being now permitted in the residencies of Bantam, Cheri- 
bon and many other of the Eastern districts. And, as 
with the coffees of all other countries, the product of 
the different districts of Java varies considerably in 
quality and value, many of them possessing a richness 
and mellowness not approached by that of any other 
country ; others, again, being so inferior that were it not 
for the fact of being grown on that island they would 
not be deserving of the name. 



JAVA COFFEES. I37 



Bantam and Batavia — Are medium-sized, yellowish 
in color, regular and uniform in appearance, roasting and 
drinking exceeding well, being generally clean and free 
from quakers, 

Bagalen and Bezoeki — Are rather bold and plump 
in style, rich yellow in color, solid and compact in form, 
full in body and fragrant in flavor, ranking with the best 
of the Java growths. 

Banjoewanjie and Banjoemas — While not plentiful 

sorts, rarely coming to this market, being principally 
shipped to Holland, where they are much appreciated for 
their great strength and rich flavor, are medium-sized, 
heavy and round in body, creamy and fragrant in the cup. 

Cheribon and Japara — Are rather light in weight 
and color, inclined to be " chaffy" in the natural state 
and " quakery " in the roasted, but nevertheless yield a 
pleasing and palatable liquor on infusion. 

Eadoe and Kediri. — Are small, hard-bean . coffees, 
approaching brown, and usually good drinkers, being a 
favorite in the European market, where they rank high 
commercially. 

Rembang and Krawang. — Rank next to Kadoe in 
general cup qualities, but are somewhat irregular in the 
raw state, roasting and drinking well, however. 

Preanger and Probolingo. — The soil of these dis- 
tricts being pre-eminently adapted for the cultivation of 
fine coffees, they are noted for their products. The bean 
is round, full and well developed, high-yellow in color, 
but assuming a rich-brown with age, firm and regular in 
style, rich, mellow and creamy in liquor, fragrant and 
aromatic in flavor, rivalling the best product of Arabia 
itself. 



13^ OTHER VARIETIES. 



Passoeren and Pekalongen — Rank next to Prean- 
ger, being usually brown, regular and uniform, full in 
body, round in flavor and as a general rule very fragrant, 
particularly when the crop is good. 

Madioen and Soerabaya — Belong to the yellow- 
bean class, and are rather light in weight and body but 
pleasing and agreeable in the cup, approximating to a 
fine Cucuta Maracaibo in form, liquor and general 
characteristics, 

Soerakarta and Djokjakarta — Are among the best 

of the Java growths, large, heavy and well-developed in 
bean, handsome and attractive in the roasted state, yield- 
ing a rich golden-yellow liquor, creamy in body and 
aromatic in flavor. 

Bali and Timoor — Are grown on the small islands 
to the south of Java, and though fair in size and quite 
brown in color, are nevertheless deceptive in roasting and 
drinking qualities. 

Malang and Samarang— Are light in weight and in 
color, somewhat chaffy in the natural state and " quak- 
ery " in the roasted, thin, flat and flavorless in liquor. 

Old Government Java — Is a trade term applied to 
coffee grown and stored under the supervision of the 
officers of the Dutch government, and in contradistinc- 
tion to that raised by the natives, but is now an almost 
obsolete term. It is produced principally in the Prean- 
ger district, where the greatest care and attention is 
bestowed on its cultivation and curing, its cultivation 
never being entirely entrusted to the natives ; the pri- 
mary object of the government officials being to improve 



OTHER VARIETIES. IJQ 



the beny and enhance its value to the exclusion of 
increased quantity. After being picked and cured, it is 
stored in " go-downs " or storehouses for a number of 
years, frequently seven, before being offered for sale, 
the go-downs being erected expressly for the purpose,- 
being open at the sides so as to admit the sun and air in 
order to mature and season the coffee, which, like wine, 
improves with age, the bean assuming with time a dark- 
brown color and the flavor becoming richer and more 
mellow by the development of the volatile or essential oil 
contained in the beans. By prolonged keeping in the 
raw state it is found that the richness of any seeds in 
this peculiar oil is increased, and with increased aroma 
the coffee yields a blander and more mellow beverage. 
Stored coffees, for this reason, loses weight at first With 
great rapidity, sometimes as much as 8 per cent, having 
been found to dissipate in the first year of keeping, 5 per 
cent, in the second and 2 per cent, in the third ; but 
such loss of weight is more than compensated for by the 
improvement in quality and consequent enhancement oT 
value. Old Government Java is for this reason celebrated 
for its superior excellence, and justly deserving of its high 
repute. Latterly, however, the term has been indis- 
criminately used and applied to all Java coffees of a brown 
color, irrespective of age, grade or district of production 
and has thereby ceased to possess any real significance as 
implying any extra merit or superiority over the average 
run of Java coffees. The natural bean of the true Old 
Government Java Coffee is large, round and well devel- 
oped, of a rich brown color, exceedingly regular and 
uniform in general appearance and entirely free from 
defects of any kind, while the infusion is round and heavy 
in body, creamy, mellow and fragrant in flavor, surpassing 
in general " cup qualities " that of any other variety grown. 



140 OTHER VARIETIES. 



All coffees raised under the supervision of the govern- 
ment are disposed of through the agency of the " Nether- 
lands' Maatschappy," or Trading Company, at the 
periodical (quarterly) auction sales held in Batavia or 
Amsterdam, the sales occurring in the months of March, 
June, September and December. It is offered for sale 
only in limited quantities — from one to two hundred 
picul lots — no purchaser being permitted to buy more 
at a single bidding, the prices varying at each sale, being 
regulated by the quantity offered and the number ot 
orders received by the agents or brokers to buy, so that 
parties purchasing two or more lots cannot calculate 
what the average cost will be until the sale is ended. 

Plantation — Or " Private Growth Javas," are so 
termed from being grown on plantations owned and 
operated by private or individual planters, and in con- 
tradistinction to that raised under government super- 
vision. Being grown from selected seed, under the best 
agricultural conditions and scientific cultivation, it pro- 
duces a quality of coffee that cannot be surpassed for 
size, style, color, regularity and general intrinsic merit. 
It is also marketed differently from the government 
system, being disposed of by contract or tender, that is, 
as soon as the quantity and quality of the crop can be 
estimated, the planters issue a circular letter or note to 
the principal firms of Batavia and to the representatives 
of European and American houses, informing them of the 
facts and soliciting bids for the entire crop. Proposals 
are received and the coffee sold to the highest bidder ; 
but if, according to the planter's views, the offers are too 
low, he claims the right to reject them and hold the 
coffee for a better market. If accepted the coffee is care- 
fully picked over, assorted and transported to the shipping 



OTHER VARIETIES. 14I 



port by the planter and delivered in bulk, the purchaser 
furnishing his own bags and marks, the coffees being oi 
such high repute and quality they sell high, there being 
great competition to obtain them. Many of these plan- 
tations were in existence prior to the introduction of the 
government monopoly system, or are situated on the 
estates of the native princes, who have been permitted 
to retain some portion of their sovereign privileges. 

Liberian-Java — Is the product of a transplant oi 
the Liberian species introduced into the island about ten 
yearo ago, where it was found to prosper well and vigor- 
ously ; a great demand springing up for its seed, the 
cultivation increasing and yielding a bean much larger 
than that produced by the parent plant, full and well 
developed, yellow to brown in color, concave in form 
and closely resembling "Padang" in liquor and flavor. 

W. I. P. — Or " West India Prepared " Java is so termed 
from being pulped and prepared by the "Washed" or 
West India process, being also known to trade as " Blue- 
bean Java." The raw bean is bold, regular and bluish- 
green in color, hard and solid in substance, heavy, rich 
and flavory in liquor. Some authorities, however, con- 
tend that this new process is detrimental to the coffee, 
claiming that by the old or " dry-hulled " method the 
bean retained all the properties of the coffee to a much 
greater degree, whereas by the new process, considerable 
of the active principle (caffeine) is carried off in the 
washing. 

Loeke or " Tiger-cat Java " — Is a variety of Java 
coffee highly prized for the intrinsic merits imparted to it 
by a peculiar process. It is composed simply of the 
undigested beans which have passed through the intes- 
tinal canal of the " Loeke," a small species of tiger found 



142 OTHER VARIETIES. 



in Java, which, cHmbing the trees, selects the ripest and 
richest of the berries, feeds on them, swallowing both 
pulp and beans, the latter being left in the jungle and 
afterwards collected by the natives. It is analogous to 
the " Monkey coffee " of Brazil and the "Jackal coffee " 
of India, the excellent qualities of which is due to the 
chemical process which the beans undergo in the 
stomach of the animal that has stolen them, the appreci- 
ation of such stercoraceously deposited beans by the 
natives being an undoubted fact. The bean is large and 
bold, but whitish in color, heavy, round and creamy in 
body, exceedingly fragrant and aromatic in flavor and 
not excelled by that of any coffee grown or known to 
commerce. 

At the time of shipment all Java coffees are of a light- 
green shade unless — as in the case of government and 
other coffees — they have been previously stored for the 
purpose of seasoning or to await a better market. Dur- 
ing the long voyage through the tropics the bean gradu- 
ing changes to a deep-yellow, and finally to a dark-brown, 
particularly if the voyage be materially lengthened, as it 
frequently is; the darker the color becomes the more val- 
uable the coffee on arrival. This distinctive feature being 
characteristic of Java coffees only, no other variety 
acquiring this color except by artificial means. Color is 
the standard of value and the principal consideration in 
appraising its price in the American market, there being 
a wide difference made in the values of "Pale," "Yellow" 
and " Brown " Java coffees in favor of the latter. As stated 
before, by being stored for a certain length of time, Java 
coffees improve in quality, the bean becoming browner 
and the flavor more mellow, probably in the same manner 
as wine. The moisture evaporates from the bean and the 
aciduous, astringent taste of the young, new bean is 



OTHER VARIETIES. 1 43 



entirely dissipated and lost by the process, which, by 
becoming throughly dry and seasoned, enhances its 
value commercially. Yet color cannot always be taken 
as an indication of age or genuineness, as much of the 
coffee offered under the head of Brown Java at the 
present time is nothing more than Malang and other 
varieties " sweated," and colored by a steaming process 
or artificially faced with a preparation of kaolin or soap- 
stone. Again if this feature of turning brown with time, 
were always an indication of age, it may be taken for 
granted that " Brown Javas," possessed finer roasting and 
drinking qualities, than the " Light " or Yellow-bean 
varieties, but it is an acknowledged fact that this brown 
color, even when natural, neither adds or detracts from 
its value in the cup. Practically the demand for " Brown 
Java" coffee is but an American caprice, enhancing its 
commercial value from two to three cents per pound 
beyond its intrinsic worth ; this caprice being also 
directly responsible for the immense amount of other 
so-called Java coffees that are annually sweated and 
colored to imitate or counterfeit the naturally colored 
and genuine kinds. While in Europe the yellow-colored 
coffees are preferred to the brown, being quite as good, 
if not superior, to them, and less liable to manipulation. 

Java coffees are packed for export in bags containing 
one picul(i33 pounds) when intended for the European 
markets, and in mats of one-half picul for the American, 
the latter style being preferred in this country. In 
the European markets they are classed as " Green," 
"Pale-green," "Greenish" and "Extra-green" when new, 
but as "Yellow," " Dark-yellow," " Light-brown" and 
" Brown" when old, grading in the order named. While 
in the United States they are generally classed as 
"Light," "Yellow" and "Brown," according to color, the 



144 SUMATRA COFFEES 



packages being usually marked with the initials of the 
importer, underneath which is a letter or letters denoting 
the district or plantation where grown. The average 
annual production is about 100,000,000 pounds, of which 
30,000,000 pounds is produced on private plantations. 

Sumatra known to the Arabians as Sriniata (" the 
happy "), lies to the northwest of Java, being separated 
only from it by the narrow Sunda strait, and is much 
richer in products than the latter island. The coffee- 
plant was first introduced into Sumatra from Java, by the 
Dutch, in the latter part of the eighteenth century, but 
its cultivation made little or no progress on that island 
until about the year 1800, when measures were taken by 
the government to promote and stimulate its production 
there, since which period there has been a rapid increase 
in its output. The system of coffee cultivation is nearly 
identical with that in Java, each native family being fur- 
nished with seed by the government on condition that 
they keep in good bearing order not less than 650 trees, 
the crop, " if up to standard," being purchased by the 
government, that is, taken, at an ' arbitrarily fixed price, 
The coffee, after being inspected and accepted, is stored 
in go-downs or warehouses adjacent to the districts of 
growth, until a sufficient quantity has been collected, 
when it is transported to the ports of Padang or Ben- 
koolen, where, after being duly advertised, it is sold 
at auction, under the immediate supervision of the 
officers of the Dutch government, the sales being held 
quarterly during the months of March, June, September 
and December, as in Batavia and Amsterdam. Latterly, 
however, the cultivation of coffee in Sumatra has been 
further encouraged by the government leasing or selling 



SUMATRA COFFEES. 1 45 



coffee-lands to independent planters, the product of such 
plantations being termed " Free coffee," in contradistinc- 
tion to that raised with restrictions by the natives, such 
coffees being sold only by tenders, as in Java. 

Like Java, Sumatra is geographically divided into a 
number of districts politically termed " Residencies," under 
Dutch control, the coffee-producing districts comprising 
Painan, Padang, Palembang, Ankola, Ayerbanjies and 
Mandheling, grading relatively in the order named. 

Painan — Is a medium-sized bean brownish in color, 
hard, solid and regular in appearance, generally clean 
and well prepared, and though fairly heavy in body and 
pungent in flavor is yet devoid of the mellowness and 
fragrance which characterize Sumatra sorts in gen- 
eral, but is still superior in many respects to a number of 
the Java growths. 

Padang — Known to trade generally as " Interior " 
from being raised in a somewhat desultory manner by 
the natives on government lands, in the Padang plateau 
or highlands of the interior, which furnishes the largest 
quantity. Padang or Interior coffees are not, as a rule, 
as stylish or uniform as the other district growths, owing to 
careless cultivation and the primitive methods of prepara- 
tion in use by the natives. Yet, notwithstanding these 
drawbacks. Interior coffees frequently comprise invoices 
rivalling in roasting and drinking qualities many of the 
regularly cultivated district coffees, and at all times far 
outrank the average of the Java product. The raw bean 
as a rule is of fair proportions, but very irregular in 
general appearance, fairly uniform, and though lacking 
in the style and finer qualities of the plantation grades, 
is nevertheless strong, rich and fragrant in the cup, 
possessing a characteristic flavor entirely their own. 



146 SUMATRA COFFEES. 



Falembang — Differs from Padang both in size, style, 
color and drink, being smaller in bean, lighter in color, 
but stronger and more pungent in liquor, and not, as a 
general rule, as highly valued, except when the crop is 
good. 

Ankola — Ranks among the finest of the Sumatra 
sorts in point of size, color and general character, the 
natural bean being round, full and firm, rich dark-brown 
in color, bright and mellow in liquor, and very fragrant 
if not aromatic in flavor, and much superior in every 
respect to the best of the Java growths, excepting alone 
that produced in the Preanger district. 

Ayerbanjies — Is closely allied to Ankola in all its 
leading features of size, color, structure and character, 
being classed commercially as on an entire parity with 
it, commanding the same price, and frequently substituted 
for it when the former is scarce or difficult to obtain. 

Mandheling — Is without exception the finest of the 
Sumatra products, and is valued high commercially, not 
alone for its undisputed intrinsic merits, but also on 
account of the comparatively small amount produced, 
forming only about ten per cent, of the entire product 
of the island. The bean is much larger, almost as large 
as Liberian, of a rich dark, natural-brown color, round, 
full, well developed and symmetrical in form, very stylish 
and attractive in the roasted state, and equalling, if not 
positively surpassing, the much-vaunted Old Government 
Java itself 

Lahat — Is another of the Sumatra varieties, but not 
deserving of being classed with them. Being of lowland 
growth, the bean, while large, is flat in shape, whitish in 
color, and chaffy in substance, approaching a Malang in 



CELEBES COFFEES. " 1 47 



general contour,' It is invariably " quakery " in the 
roast, flat in liquor, insipid in flavor, or more correctly, 
almost devoid of " cup " qualities. 

Sumatra coflees, in general, possess a peculiarly char- 
acteristic flavor in the raw or natural state, described by 
some dealers as " musty," but claimed to be acquired in 
transit through the tropics, the coflee sweating in the 
hold of the vessel during the long voyage. Certain it is, 
however, that this mustiness, or whatever it may be 
termed, enhances rather than detracts from the value or 
flavor of the coffee. And, more singular to add, Sumatra 
forms nine-tenths of the coffee imported and sold in the 
United States under the head of Java, being preferred to 
the latter by the American dealers in general, on account 
of its usually dark-brown color and distinctive " musty " 
flavor. The annual product, like that of all other 
countries, varies materially from various and obvious 
causes, both in quantity and quality, the average annual 
export being about 20,000,000 pounds, of which the 
United States takes upwards of 75 per cent, the product 
of " Free " or private plantation coffee forming about 
one-fifth of the annual yield. It is packed in grass mats, 
and shipped from the port of Padang, when purchased 
for account in the United States, and from Benkoolen, 
in the north, when intended for the European market. 

Are grown in the Dutch island of that name, situated 
to the northeast of Java, the coffee plant being intro- 
duced there from Java as far back as 1750, but except 
where Dutch influence was felt little or no attention was 
paid to it by the native races until about 1822, when it 
was discovered by the Dutch rulers that the soil of the 
mountain sides was admirably adapted to the cultivation 



CELEBES COFFEES. 



of fine coffees and a system established which stimulated 
the native chiefs to foster the industry and undertake the 
management of coffee plantations. A law was subse- 
quently enacted by the Dutch government, however, 
compelling the native princes to direct the total anni- 
hilation of the cultivation of coffee in their dominions 
and to secure by treaty with them the destruction and 
confiscation of all coffee found in the hands of the 
natives. The island is divided into thirteen districts, in 
nearly all of which more or less coffee is produced. 
The principal coffees being known to commerce as 
Menado, Bonthyne and Macassar. 

Meiiado — Produced in the district of Minnahassa 
situated in the extreme north of the island, is not only 
the finest grown on that island, but, also excels the 
best products of both Java and Sumatra. The bean is 
uniformly large and regular, of a rich dark-yellow color, 
solid and heavy in weight, magnificent in the roast, 
creamy and aromatic to a high degree in the cup. It is 
claimed to possess the " highest standard of excellence," 
no other variety containing the same all-round qualities 
of size, style, color, liquor, flavor and aroma to the same 
extent. The supply, however, is very limited, and is 
generally shipped to Holland, where it commands a price 
in accordance with its merits, but rarely reaching the 
United States. 

Bonthyne — Is medium in size, flat in form, reddish 
in color, inferior in roast and flavor, and not a desirable 
sort by any means. 

Macassar — Is the poorest of the Celebes sorts, closely 
resembling Lahat and Malang, and on a parity with 
them in appearance, charagter and value, 



POLYNESIAN COFFEES. 1 49 

Singapore Javas.— What are known to commerce 
as " Singapore Java Coffees " are not produced on that 
island, which, although lying directly in the coffee zone, 
produces little or no coffee, except small quantities of the 
Liberian species, which has recently been introduced there. 
90 per cent, of the coffee shipped from Singapore is 
chiefly composed of the products of Bali, Timour, the 
Mollucas and smaller Sunda islands, its position making 
it the only entrepot for the commerce of the entire archi- 
pelago. The coffees are usually small in size, reddish 
in color, irregular in grade and inferior in quality, being 
generally produced from wild or carelessly cultivated 
plants, and also possessing a peculiar spicy or " peppery " 
flavor, said to be contracted from being imported with 
cargoes of pepper, but more probably from being grown 
in the vicinity of pepper plantations in the Spice islands. 
Formerly these coffees were marketed under their true 
titles, but as their character became known they were 
palmed off as Padang and other district Javas, to the 
detriment of the latter. 

The systematic cultivation of the Liberian species of 
coffee was commenced about ten years ago in Siam, 
Malacca and many of the smaller islands of Malaysia, 
where it was found to prosper so well at tirst that the 
the demand for Liberian seed became very great. But 
after a fair trial it does not seem to have been a great 
success, what little is produced in these new districts 
being generally classed as "J^hore Liberian " coffee. 

Embrace Phillipine, Borneo, Guinea, Fijian, Samoan, 
Hawaiian, Australian, New Zealand, and other islands 
in the South Pacific Ocean. 



156 POLYNESIAN COFFEES. 

Phillipine Coffees. — Opinions differ as to whether 
the coffee plant is indigenous to the Phillipine Islands or 
only exotic there, some authorities declaring that it was 
first brought there by Spanish priests from the Malay. 
Others again claiming that the plant was found in 
a wild state in the island of Luzon prior to its 
introduction, but that the natives, being ignorant of its 
properties, allowed the fruit to decay on the trees. Be 
this as it may, coffee thrives there remarkably well, the 
product possessing a peculiarly rich flavor, for which 
it is highly esteemed on the continent of Europe, and, 
although it is by no means well prepared or uniform, the 
worst grades bring a higher price there than the Java 
growths, the value on the spot exceeding the current 
rates for the latter in the foreign markets, and is gener- 
ally classed as " Luzon," " Manilla" and " Zamboango," 
from the ports of shipment 

Luzon — Is a small-bean variety, hard and flinty in 
texture, rich and aromatic in the infusion, but poorly or 
indifferently cleaned or prepared, for which causes it is 
not as well appreciated as it deserves. 

Manilla — Is principally produced on the islands of 
Indan, Laguna, Batangas and Cavite, its price on the spot 
varying from twenty to twenty-two dollars per picul. 
The bean is medium in size, regular in form, and pale- 
green in color, perfect in roast and aromatic in flavor. 

Zamboango — Comes chiefly from Mindano and the 
southern islands generally. The bean is much larger 
than that of Manilla, yellowish-white in color, but some- 
what flabby in texture, and containing much extraneous 
matter, being poorly prepared, while the liquor is thin, 
flat and apt to be wild or " grassy " in flavor. 



POLYXRSIAN COFFEES. I5I 



Recently the natives have planted patches of coffee 
in the islands of Cebu and Bohol, small quantities of 
which have appeared in the European markets, some also 
being secured from the islands of Yligan and Amboyana. 
The area of land under coffee cultivation in the 
Phillipines, and the amount of coffee raised annually is 
not definitely known, as the plantations are widely scat- 
tered over the islands of the archipelago, but is usually 
estimated at about 10,000,000 pounds. The largest plan- 
tations are situated in the province of Batangas in the 
island of Luzon, but considerable coffee is also produced 
independently by the natives in small plots which they 
sell to speculators, who hold it until they make up a fair- 
sized shipment, collected in this manner, from the neigh- 
boring islands. The increase in production, however, has 
been marked during the past five years, from about 
10,000,000 pounds in 1888, to over 16,000,000 pounds 
in 1893, about 6,000,000 pounds coming direct to this 
country, the remainder being taken by Spain, France 
and Continental Europe generally. 

Borneo Coffee. — The Liberian plant has been recently 
introduced into Borneo on a small scale, where it has 
been found to thrive well but producing a bean greatly 
modified in size, color and flavor of the original species. 
It is much smaller, not as convex or brown, but smoother 
and more pleasing, if anything, in the drink. 

Guinea Coffee. — Rapid strides are being made in the 
cultivation of coffee in New Guinea, the product ranking 
with the average of the mild grades of the older 
countries. 

Samoan Coffee. — The coffee plant has been in exist- 
ence here for some years, and though thriving luxu- 
riantly, and the soil and climate being well adapted, it 



15^ POLYNESIAN COt'B'EES. 

has never been scientifically treated, and as a conse- 
iquence is not as yet an article of commerce. 

Fijian Coffee. — Some coffee of fair quality was 
exported from these islands as early as 1877, the indus- 
try makitig but little progress there since that time, not- 
withstanding the fact that the islands possess abundant 
facilities for the production of a superior variety. Several 
of the most wealthy and enterprising planters are now, 
however, engaged in its cultivation, and it is expected 
soon to become one of the chief exports of those islands. 
The bean is medium sized, green in color, as with all 
new coffees, and, owing to improper curing, somewhat 
grassy in flavor. 

Hawaiian Coffee — Coffee has been cultivated in 
Hawaii and other islands of that group with consider- 
able success for many years past, although the produc- 
tion has varied greatly there. The first plantations 
formed in the island were only a few feet above sea-level, 
to which fact is attributed the failure or rather slow pro- 
gress of the industry there. New plantations at higher 
elevations have recently been established, from which 
better returns are expected. They are classified, and 
known to trade as Puna, Hilo, Kona and Hamakua, of 
which Kona is the finest, the others varying in size, color 
and fllavor. The exports have declined from 415,000 
pounds in 1870, which in 1885 fell to as low as 1,675 
pounds, but for 1892 it had again increased to 13,000 
pounds, the total exports since 1881 amounting to 
215,782 pounds. 

Australian Coffee. — Coffee has been found to pros- 
per well in Queensland, a yield of over 600 pounds 
per acre being obtained there so far and selling in Bris- 
bane at twenty cents per pound, the smaller farmers 



AMERICAN COFFEES. I53 



finding it paying better than com or potatoes. Efforts 
are also being made to introduce the industry into New 
Zealand and other of the Antipodean colonies. This 
list does not by any means exhaust the possible spots 
or sections in Polynesia where coffee is or may be 
grown with the greatest advantage, touching only the 
chief centres of the industry, and as suggesting some 
eligible sites for the extension of the planting enterprise. 
Fair quantities of coffee being also produced in the 
Hebrides, Society, Friendly and many other of the 
island groups in the South Pacific Ocean. 

As previously stated, the history of the first introduc- 
tion of the coffee plant into the American continent is as 
romantic as it is interesting. In 17 14 the magistrates of 
Amsterdam presented to Louis XIV a specimen of the 
coffee tree, Avhich was carefully nursed in one of the 
botanic gardens of Paris, until it eventually yielded fruit. 
In 1 7 17 the French king sent several of the shoots from 
it to the island of Martinique in care of one De Clieux, an 
officer in the French naval service. The voyage being 
long and stormy, the ship's crew were reduced to a short 
allowance of water; for lack of which essential all but one 
of the young plants died. De Clieux to save this remain- 
ing slip shared with it his own scanty allowance, event- 
ually succeeding in bringing it safely to its destination. 
From this single plant thus heroically preserved, accord- 
ing to De Tour, was propagated the numerous varieties 
now to be found in the West Indies, Mexico, Central, 
and the northern countries of South America. And 
where, notwithstanding the fact that Coffee is indigenous 
to the Old World it has evidently found its true habitat 
in the New, its production at the present being many 



154 MEXICAN COFFEES. 



times greater than in the East ; its cultivation also con- 
stantly and immensely increasing there. 

The climatic and topographic conditions of the Ameri- 
can continent are pre-eminently adapted to the cultiva- 
tion of fine coffees, the great mass of coffee lands, con- 
sisting of an elevated plateau formed by an expansion of 
the Cordilleras from which terraced slopes descend with 
a more or less rapid inclination towards both the Atlantic 
and Pacific oceans. This vast tract comprises one of 
the richest and most varied zones of the world, for while 
its geographical position secures to it a tropical vegeta- 
tion, the rapid differences of elevation which character- 
ize it afford it the advantages of more temperate climates, 
thus combining within its borders an almost unparalleled 
exuberance and multiplicity of natural products, lands 
favorable to the cultivation of coffee being found not 
only on the entire Andean range but also on its sea and 
land slopes from Mexico to Paraguay, While in addition 
to these immense stretches of mountain range, the plant 
is also found to flourish in the numerous valleys and 
plains of the interior of the continent, and wherever the 
great tablelands of the Cordilleras are sufficiently de- 
pressed to reach the level of tropical vegetation. 

American Coffees are geographically divided into 
Mexican, West Indian, Central and South American, and, 
as with the products of the Old World, the commercial divi- 
sions and subdivisions of the numerous varieties are based 
rather on the districts of production and the ports of 
export than upon any great material difference in the 
appearance or even quality of the various kinds produced. 

It is also a fact not generally known to Americans that 
at our very doors there exists the climatic conditions 



MEXICAN COFFEES. t$^ 



and capacity for the production of all the coffee that is 
required for consumption in the United States, the area 
adapted to the cultivation of coffee in Mexico being 
almost illimitable, and bounded only by the extent of 
land brought under cultivation. Its suitability as a 
coffee-producing country has been tested by more than 
fifty years of experience, and that it has not heretofore 
assumed first place in point of production, exportation, 
and the rank to which the merit of its product entitles 
it, is to be attributed to the same causes that have so 
long retarded its other agricultural and commercial 
developments. But while coffee is chiefly produced for 
export only in the States of Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, Micha- 
coan, Colima, Chiapas, Jalisco and Tabasco, excellent 
coffee is also grown on the plains of the interior as far 
north as Sinaloa, as well as in the coast States from 
Yucatan to Tamaulipas. They are commercially classi- 
fied as Oaxaca, Cordova, Urupuan, Tepic, Tabasco, Soco- 
nusco and Caracolillo, varying materially in size, style 
and quality. 

Oaxaca — Is a " Sierra," or mountain coffee, large, bold 
and blue when new, but bleaching with time. It is one 
of the best of the Mexican varieties, being regular in 
roast, heavy in body, strong and rich in flavor and aroma. 

Cordova. — Grown in the State of Vera Cruz, is 
usually a large yellow-bean coffee, from which fact it is 
sometimes termed " Mexican Java." It makes a hand- 
some roast, yielding a round, full liquor, approaching to 
that of a fine Maracaibo or medium Java. 

Urupuan — Produced in the State of Michacoan is 
also a mountain grade, rather small in size, greenish- 
blue in color but somewhat irregular in appearance, not 



1S6 MEXICAN COFFEES. 



being well prepared. In flavor it is, however, high and 
fragrant, approximating most to that of a Plantation 
Ceylon. 

Tepic, — or " Mexican Mocha," grown in the State 
of Jalisco is claimed to be a transplant of the Arabian 
berry, which has by careful and scientific cultivation 
been so improved in flavor and aroma as to rival, if not 
actually excel, the product of the parent plant. The 
natural bean is exceedingly small, hard and " flinty " in 
texture, steel-blue in color, faultless in roast, rich and 
creamy in body and highly aromatic in flavor. The sup- 
ply being limited it is rarely exported, being principally 
consumed in the district of production, where it commands 
a very high price, selling on the spot for as much as one 
dollar per pound. 

Tabasco — Is a coast-grown coffee cultivated in the 
hot, moist low-lands of the Campeachy gulf, and is the 
poorest of the Mexican varieties. The bean is of a 
sickly-green hue, medium in size, and moist or 
"spongy" in substance, bitter and astringent in flavor, 
and taken altogether a most undesirable sort for any 
purpose. 

SoconuSCO — Produced in Chiapas, close to the rich 
coffee lands of Guatemala is another high-grade coffee, 
ranking among the finest of the Mexican varieties. It is 
a large, mature bean, varying in color, according to age, 
from a bluish-green to a pale-yellow, full and round in 
body, ripe and mellow in flavor as a rule. 

Goliiua — Raised on the west coast is a medium-sized 
bean, flat in form, fairly solid, but varying in color from 
greenish to pale, even in roast, rather round in liquor 
and pleasing in flavor, and generally shipped to the 
Pacific States. 



WEST INDIAN COFFEES. 157 

Garacolillo — or " Mexican pea-berry," is a concave- 
convex bean, grown on the new wood at the end of 
branches of trees that are pruned year after year ; but 
though not confined to any particular species, such trees 
yield almost entirely male or pea-berry coffee, being the 
only instance on record, and is considered the fanciest 
grade grown in Mexico. 

Mexico possesses more and better coffee lands than 
many other countries where it is now extensively grown, 
a small proportion of which only are under cultivation. 
The popularity of the product increases as it becomes 
better known, besides being the nearest and most accessi- 
ble coffee producing country to the United States, the 
largest and best coffee market in the world. More atten- 
tion is now being directed to the cultivation of coffee in 
Mexico, however, by both natives and foreigners than 
has ever before been given to the industry in that country. 
Native Mexicans are quietly, but steadily laying out new 
coffee plantations or enlarging and reviving old ones 
and many large tracts of land adapted to the growth of 
coffee have recently been purchased there by foreigners 
with that object. But while Mexico practically has no 
limit to her production of coffee, yet the average annual 
exports amounts only to about 10,000,000 pounds, the 
bulk of which is shipped to France, where it is graded 
as " Verde," or Green, and " Blanco," or White, the 
United States receiving the largest proportion of the 
remainder. 

The West India Islands at the beginning of the present 
century were noted for the extensive quantity and excel- 
lent quality of their coffee product, ranking at that period 
with the largest coffee-growing countries of the world. 



158 WEST INDIAN COFFEES. 

Its cultivation has rapidly and materially declined there 
in recent years, still continuing to do so at a dispropor- 
tionate rate ; the decrease since the emancipation of the 
negroes almost amounting to abandonment. But while 
commonly attributed in a great measure to the ravages 
of the blight, already described, it is more evidently 
traceable to social influences and a faulty system of cul- 
tivation. Latterly, however, attempts are being made to 
restore the industry to something like its former impor- 
tance by new and improved methods of culture, so that 
it remains to be seen what art can do to combat the 
difficulty. They are classified in trade as Cuban, Jamaica, 
Haytian, San Domingo, Porto Rico, Trinidad, Dominica, 
Martinique and Guadeloupe. 

Cuban — Though at one period one of the largest 
coffee-producing countries in proportion to its size, yield- 
ing nearly 50,000,000 pounds annually, Cuba now ranks 
lowest in the scale, not raising sufficient to supply the 
home demand, its cultivation being replaced in that island 
by that of sugar and tobacco. The districts most noted for 
the richness and excellence of their coffees are situated on 
the Sierra Maistra range, in the vicinity of Vuelta Abajo, 
as well as in the districts of Alquizar and San Marcos, and 
from the fact that these latter are among the oldest coffee- 
producing sections on the island, their product bears a 
high reputation for fragrance and excellence. But the 
coffee grown in the mountain district of Guantanamo is 
now considered the finest, its cultivation there being on 
the increase, while decreasing rapidly in the former dis- 
tricts. The bean of what little is produced on that island 
is large in size, whitish in color and peculiar in form, 
somewhat resembling a " male " or pea-berry. In roa t 
and drink it is superior to many of the mild grades, with 
which it is usually ranked, 



WEST INDIAN COFFEES. 1 59 

Jamaica — The coffee plant was first introduced into 
Jamaica in 1730, a special act of Parliament being passed 
in that year to encourage and foster its cultivation. 
The island is famous for the production of fine coffees, 
those grown on the regularly conducted plantations 
rivalling the best products of any country. It is divided 
into two kinds, " Blue Mountain " and " Plain-grown," 
the latter being graded commercially as " Ordinary " in 
contradistinction to the former, which is always choice. 
" Blue Mountain Jamaica" is a bold, well-developed bean, 
bluish almost translucent in cast, very solid and attractive 
in style and appearance, and developing a characteristic 
peculiarity^ that of opening and exposing a whitish hull 
or silver-skin down the furrow when roasted, while the 
liquor is heavy, round, full and rich, fragrant and aromatic 
to a high degree. It is packed for export in barrels and 
large casks, the bulk of the choicer grades being com- 
pulsorily exported to England, where it commands a 
higher figure relatively than Java and other equally fine 
coffees. Nearly all the coffee plantations on the Island 
of Jamaica being mortgaged to London brokers and 
dealers, the contracts containing a clause or stipulation 
compelling the planter to dispose of their crops through 
the holders, who, by the harsh terms of the contract, not 
only secure the best of the product and the interest on 
the money advanced but also the commissions or profits 
on its sale. 

"Ordinary" or plain-grown Jamaica is a large, whitish, 
flat and broken-bean coffee, moist or spongy in the raw 
state, and invariably stony and hully, being imperfectly 
cleaned. The roast is usually either "quakery" or "nig- 
gery," the liquor is strong, almost to rankness, and apt 
to be "wild" or "grassy" in flavor, more particularly 
when new, approximating close to a Travancorc or 



l6o WEST INDIAN COFFEES, 

Native Ceylon, to which coffees it bears a striking resem- 
blance in character and value. It is put up in large 
coarse bags, averaging about 200 pounds, and shipped 
principally to the United States. 

Haytian Coffees. — Coffee is claimed to have been first 
introduced into this island by wild fowl, being sterioca- 
ceously deposited there after the manner of Monkey, 
Jackal and Tiger-cat coffees. Its systematic cultiva- 
tion was first begun there about 1740 by the French, the 
industry flourishing during the French regime, but rapidly 
declining after the island passed under native rule. It is 
cultivated there now by natives exclusively, principally 
in the districts of Jeremie, Jacmel and Gonaives, by which 
terms it is more familiarly known to commerce. They 
are generally large, flat, white and broken in appearance, 
invariably stony and stemy, being but crudely cultivated 
and prepared for market. Yet, notwithstanding these 
defects, they are elegant roasters, yielding an excellent 
liquor, full of snap and rich in flavor, but owing to its 
indifferent treatment its commercial value is reduced far 
below its intrinsic worth. The coffee itself being mild 
and pleasant, added to its low price, would commend it 
to many consumers were it but properly cleaned and 
graded. Usually all of it received into this country is 
reshipped to France, Belgium and Germany, where it is 
picked over by hand, the consumers in these countries 
not being as exacting as regards cleaning and grading as 
in this country. The production of coffee in Hayti has 
fallen from, over 80,000,000 pounds in 1789 to less than 
50,000,000 at the present time, although the island offers 
an excellent and extensive field for the industry, which, 
it is hoped, will be taken advantage of as soon as the 
country devotes its energies more closely to the improve- 
ment of its internal affairs and the encouragement of capital. 



WEST INDIAN COFFEES. l6l 

San Domingo — Known to trade as " Cape," is grown 
on the same island to the west of Hayti, and approximates 
very closely in size, style and color to ordinary Jamaica 
— so much so that it is frequently substituted and sold in 
lieu of it. Its cultivation being also principally conducted 
by natives, who are so indifferent to its proper preparation 
for market — machinery being employed only to a very 
limited extent — that most of the product is shipped in a 
stony and otherwise dirty condition, thus reducing its 
value commercially far below its intrinsic worth. 

Porto Rico — Is grown chiefly in the province of 
Ponce, small quantities being also produced in the dis- 
tricts of Arecibo, Mayaguez and Aguadilla. The bean 
is regular and well formed, but varying in color from 
yellow to greenish, the quality is fairly good, and though, 
not well known in the American market is much valued 
in Spain and the European markets generally. 

Dominica — Known to trade as " Souffriere," from 
the district of growth, is a peculiarly shaped bean, said 
to be produced from Mocha seed, but much inferior to 
the product of the parent plant. From the effects of 
Negro emancipation and the coffee blight, the annual 
production of Dominica has fallen from over 2,000,000 
pounds to almost nominal. 

Trinidad — The coffee export from Trinidad is only 
about 25,000 pounds yearly, yet there is scarcely any 
part of the island where coffee culture may not be 
profitably undertaken, particularly in the districts of 
Aripo and Maracas, where the conditions are unsur- 
passed. Both the Arabian and Liberian species are 
grown there, the product being commercially divided 
into "Large" and "Small" and generally shipped to 
Spain. 



1 62 CENTRAL AMERICAN COFFEES. 

Martinique. — Although originally introduced into 
the New World through Martinique, which island was 
for a long time celebrated for the quantity and quality of 
its coffee, it produces very little comparatively at the 
present day. In fact, barely sufficient to supply the 
home demand, the excess going to France, where it is 
highly esteemed for its intrinsic merits. The bean is 
exceedingly small, hard and flinty, somewhat resembling 
that of a Mocha, bluish-gray in color, heavy and round 
in body, pungent and piquant in flavor, and grading 
with the finest of the milder sorts, 

Guadeloupe. — More or less coffee is produced in 
Guadeloupe and other of the smaller islands of the 
Antilles, but chiefly to supply the home demand, and, 
with the exception of the former, are almost entirely 
unknown to commerce. It is grown principally in the 
districts of Bonfleur and Hatrant, what little is exported 
being shipped to France, where it is valued high com- 
mercially for its superior drinking qualities. A century 
ago the island exported nearly 8,000,000 pounds, being 
now reduced to less than 500,000. The total annual pro- 
duction of the entire West India Islands not exceeding 
90,000,000 pounds at the present time, but strenuous 
efforts are being made to increase the product. 

OE5l?!»rl:*I«.^Iv A.IWIE)I«IO^^T««: OOE^I^EJEJ®. 

Coffee forms the principal staple of the Central Ameri- 
can States, the soil and climate being eminently adapted 
to the cultivation of fine coffees, but, as in all other 
countries, the best grades are produced on the upland or 
mountain slopes. In some of these countries, however, 
the most primitive system of cultivation and elementary 
methods of preparing are still in use, while in others, 



CENTRAL AMERICAN COFFEES. 1 63 



notably Guatemala, the most improved modern machinery 
is employed. They embrace Guatemala, Nicaragua, 
San Salvador, Honduras and Costa Rica coffees. 

Guatemala — Produces the finest, ranking in intrinsic 
merit with that of any variety grown — more particularly 
that grown in the now famous Coban district, in Vera Paz, 
which rivals, if it does not actually excel, all other varieties 
in size, style, roasting and drinking qualities. The aver- 
age bean is large, bold and symmetrical in form, of a 
translucent blue cast, and exceedingly handsome in general 
appearance, making a perfect roast, yielding a rich brown 
liquor, sparkling and aromatic in the cup. The next 
best coffees in Guatemala are those grown in the " Costa 
Chica" and "Costa Grande," a prolongation of the chain 
of mountains crossing the southern boundary of Mexico. 
The production of coffee has more than doubled in 
Guatemala in the past ten years, the price during the 
same period being more than quadrupled. The total 
product for 1892 was over 700,000 quintals, representing 
a total value of 16,000,000 dollars. The extraordinary 
high price of coffee now ruling has led to a transforma- 
tion of the country, small land-owners who heretofore 
realized from their crops scarcely sufficient for working 
expenses, now find themselves with considerable capital, 
with which they improve and enlarge their plantations. 
These results have led to unbridled speculation, large 
companies being formed there for still increasing the area 
and yield of coffee, every speculator and small trader 
who has been enabled to save a little money, aban- 
doning his former occupation, turning his attention to 
coffee growing. This condition may last as long as the 
present high prices of coffee continues, but a reaction 
may occur at any time, when complete ruin will be 



164 CENTRAL AMERICAN COFFEES. 



the natural consequence to the suddenly increased 
number of producers, of which the reflex cannot 
be but felt in the economic conditions of the country. 
Land which was but a few years ago uninhabited, has 
been suddenly converted into smiling and well-cultivated 
coffee plantations, towns and villages long in decay 
have risen around them as if by magic and are steadily 
increasing in wealth. New roads to facilitate transporta- 
tion to the ports are being constructed, commercial 
transactions are multiplied, the revenue of the country is 
increasing, public credits re-established on a sounder 
basis, and what was but a short time ago a poor, declin- 
ing and almost ruined State has been suddenly, by the 
cultivation of coffee, converted into a rich and prosperous 
commonwealth. 

Nicaragua — Is a medium-sized regular-formed bean, 
solid and heavy in the hand, greyish-yellow in color, 
what is technically termed " foxy," and a smooth roaster. 
The drinking qualities, however, are only fair, the liquor, 
while heavy, being devoid of snap and fragrance, approxi- 
mating more to a Rio in flavor. 

Salvador — Is allied to Nicaragua in appearance and 
character, and classed the same, but possesses much finer 
roasting and drinking properties. The natural bean of 
the finer grades is, if anything, better developed and 
more uniform, while the poorer ones are very uneven, 
broken and " mottled " in appearance ; the liquor thin in 
body and lacking aroma. 

Honduras — Is a yellowish, heavy-bean coffee, assum- 
ing a rich straw color with age, and having an attractive 
appearance in the hand. As a general rule it roasts even 
and smooth, becoming a rich brown color when parched ; 



VENEZUELAN COFFEES. 1 65 

the liquor, while thin, gives out a pleasant odor, resem- 
bling that exhaled by cocoa or chocolate, said to be 
acquired from being grown in close proximity to cocoa 
plantations. 

Costa Rica — Is ome of the most deceptive coffees 
grown, the raw bean being large and bold in style, a rich 
pea-green in color, uniform and shapely; but is invariably 
what is termed " hidey," which is in reality due to the 
soil in which it is grown, and, while it makes an almost 
perfect roast, is " grassy " and bitter in the infusion, par- 
ticularly when roasted for any length of time, it becomes 
sour and unpalatable, making its purchase at all times 
risky. 

south: A.»j:E;iitio.^iv oofm^ejejs 
Comprise Venezuelan, Colombian, Equador, Bolivian, 
Guiana, Peruvian, Paraguayan and Brazilian, small quanti- 
ties being also produced in Chili and Argentina. 

The chief coffee-producing districts of Venezuela lie 
in a central division, having Caracas and Valencia as a 
base, with the ports of La Guayra and Puerto Cabello as 
shipping points, the district surrounding the Lake of 
Valencia being one of the most productive coffee coun- 
tries in the world in the quantity and quality of its product. 
They include La Guayra, Caracas, Maracaibo, Curagoa 
and Angostura coffees. 

La Guayra— Also known as " Coro " and " Port," 
or Puerto Cabello, from the ports of shipment, varies in 
size from small to medium, and from a pale to a dark- 
green in color. It is usually graded on a parity with 
R.io, to which coffee it most approximates in roast and 
drink, it being frequently polished and sold as such, 



1 66 VENEZUELAN COFFEES. 

particularly when Rios are scarce, and, although classed 
as a " Mild coffee," develops more or less of a Rio flavor 
in the cup. 

Caracas — Is of two kinds — Trilliado Milled or 
"dry-hulled" and Descerazado (Washed) or "wet-hulled" — 
from the different methods employed in pulping and pre- 
paring for market. The former is a yellowish, medium- 
sized bean, regular and uniform in the natural state, but 
apt to be " quakery " in the roasted, and only fair in the 
drink. While " Washed Caracas," on the other hand, is 
bold and bluish in color, opening at the furrow when 
roasted like a Mountain Jamaica or Plantation Oeylon, 
exceedingly heavy and rich in body and fragrant in 
flavor, and may be classed as one of the best varieties 
grown. 

Maracaibos — Consist of five different varieties or 
grades — Cucuta, Merida, Bocono, Tovar and Trujillo — 
district terms, ranking in the order named, " Cucuta " 
being, when the season is favorable, one of the best 
coffees grown, grading with many of the products of 
Java itself. The raw or natural bean of the finer grades is 
large, round and solid in substance, deep, rich-yellow in 
color, approximating to that of the best yellow-bean 
Java sorts in style, appearance and drink. While 
" Merida " is a mountain-grown coffee, large, bold and 
bluish in color, frequently excelling " Cucuta," particu- 
larly when the crop is good, and possessing a full ripe 
liquor with round full body and distinctive flavor very 
pleasing to the average consumer. 

"Bocono," "Tovar" and "Trujillo," are inferior 
grades to the above, small and gnarled in the natural 
state, generally stony and broken, " quakery " and 
shriveled when roasted, light in liquor, but smooth and 



COLOMBIAN COFFEES. 1 67 



pleasing in flavor withal, making good useful coffees for 
blending purposes. Maracaibo coffees are packed in 
Sisal-hemp bags averaging 130 pounds, and principally 
shipped to the United States, where they are held in high 
esteem for their many excellent qualities, the regular 
grades of Cucuta being marked " C " under the importers' 
initials, and the choicer grades " C C." Merida is indi- 
cated by the letter " M " in the same manner, Bocono 
by " B," Tovar by " T " and Trujillo by " To." But 
owing to the too common practice of substituting and 
repacking indulged in by unscrupulous dealers, these 
distinguishing marks cannot always be relied on with 
any certainty. 

Curagoa — Is a small, yellowish, shriveled or shrunken 
bean coffee, evidently immature or blighted in growth 
from some unknown cause. It is generally " quakery" 
in the roast, but yields a not disagreeable liquor in the 
cup, making a valuable variety in combination to reduce 
cost. 

Angostura — Is a large, flabby, yellowish bean 
variety, shapely in form but light and " chaffy" in sub- 
stance, and invariably " quakery" when roasted, the 
liquor being thin, watery and almost flavorless. 

Venezuela supplies about one-tenth of all the coffee 
consumed in the United States, the total imports being 
in round numbers about 60,000,000 pounds per annum, 
and growing steadily. 

ooi:vOadr:BiA.Tsr ooi=m^e5e^®. 

The coffee-producing districts in Colombia are situated 
chiefly in the departments of Boyaca, Santander and 
Cundamarca, these three departments having an area of 
over 160,000 square miles, of which nearly one-half is 



1 68 COLOMBIAN COFFEES. 



adapted to the cultivation of some of the finest varieties 
of coffee grown. The possibility of this extensive area 
promises a future supply of almost six times the amount 
consumed in the United States ; in fact, coffee-growing 
in Colombia, like Mexico, has no limit except that caused 
by the lack of labor and capital to work it. They are 
known in trade as Ocana, Bogota, Panama, Savanilla and 
Bucaramanga. 

Ocana. — While bold in bean and regular in form, 
inclining to a yellowish in color, is still light in weight 
and thin in body, approaching that of a Trujillo Mara- 
caibo in flavor, with which coffee it is usually graded. 

Bogota — Is a mountain-grown coffee, raised on the 
western slopes of the Andes. It is usually a large and 
well-developed bean, bluish-green and very uniform in 
general appearance, solid, compact, and faultless in the 
roast. The liquor is heavy, full, round and fragrant in 
flavor, comparing favorably with Caracas, Jamaica, Guate- 
mala and Plantation Ceylon in general style and 
character. 

Savanilla — Is a large, light and " spongy " bean 
coffee, brittle and chaffy in the roast, devoid of body 
and almost flavorless. It closely approximates to a Na- 
tive Ceylon or Angostura in appearance and character, 
with which coffees it is commercially classed. 

Panama — Is comparatively a new variety, recently 
produced on the isthmus, and like all new productions 
immature in appearance. It is of the average size, 
greenish in color, but moist and spongy in the natural 
state, and as yet but poorly prepared. The liquor is 
heavy and strong almost to rankness, possessing a grassy 
or uncooked taste, defects, it is claimed, that will be 



COLOMBIAN COFFEES. 1 69 

overcome in time when its cultivation and preparation is 
better understood there. 

Bucaramanga — Known to trade as " Bucaramanga 
Maracaibo," ranks among the finest of the South American 
varieties, being large and bold in style, solid and weighty 
in substance, perfect in roast, heavy, round and full in 
liquor, fragrant and aromatic in flavor, the finest grades 
being superior to many of the Java sorts. The depart- 
ment of Chinqui in the interior of Colombia also offers 
a good field for coffee culture, the fine lands along the 
slopes of the mountain ranges being admirably adapted 
for the purpose. The annual product is about 20,000,000 
pounds, going chiefly to the United States and France. 

Equador Coffees— Include Cuenca, Tacunga and 
Machala, but are generally classed under the name of 
" Guayquil," being shipped from that port and consumed 
principally on the Pacific coast, but are limited in 
production, little being left for export after the home 
demand has been supplied. They range from medium 
to large in size, are somewhat bold in style, hard and 
flinty in texture, pale to greenish in color, and only fairly 
uniform, being rather imperfectly prepared, but roast and 
drink well, nevertheless, yielding a light-brown liquor, 
full in body and fairly fragrant in flavor. Increasing 
attention is being given to coffee cultivation in Equador, 
the produce of the new districts being of good quality. 
The exports from Guayquil average about 1,000,000 
pounds per annum, but in some years the crop is entirely 
spoilt by heavy rains, the yield being inferior in quality 
and so low in quantity as not to suffice for local needs. 

Bolivian Coffees — Are comparatively new to com- 
merce and bid fair to become popular sorts in time, 



I 7° COLOMBIAN COFFEES. 



when their cultivation and methods of properly preparing 
are better understood in that country. They are pro- 
duced principally in the provinces of Yungas and Mapin, 
small quantities being also grown in the other provinces. 
The finest kind is that cultivated in the valley of Yungas, 
which though small in size and pale in color possesses a 
peculiarly rich and delicate flavor, commanding a very 
high price relatively. The product, however, is limited, 
only about 300,000 pounds per annum, or equal to one- 
fourth the entire supply. The product of Mapin is much 
larger in size, greenish in color, but not near as rich in 
flavor, bringing a much less price, the annual product 
being three times greater. Bolivian coffees in general 
produce an intoxicating effect, this peculiar action being 
as yet unaccounted for, but is claimed by some authorities 
to be acquired from being grown in the immediate vicinity 
of the cactus plant, from which pulque is distilled, the 
coffee plant being of such a sensitive and absorbent nature 
that it readily acquires any foreign flavor within range. 
Whether this claim is correct or not has not as yet 
been ascertained, but certain it is that what is known as 
Singapore coffee usually tastes of spices, Honduras of 
cocoa and Costa Rica of what is called, for want of a 
more applicable term, " hide," but Avhich is in reality due 
to the presence of oxide of iron in the soil. 

Guiana Coffees. — Known to trade as "Surinam," 
"Demerara" and "Cayenne," from the ports of shipment, 
are produced in the French and Dutch colonies of South 
America. But although the cultivation of coffee was 
introduced into these countries about the same period as 
to Martinique, its cultivation there has made but little 
progress, the total production being limited in supply, and 
going chiefly to the mother countries. 



Brazilian COFFEES. 171 

Peruvian Coffee. — Coffee grows luxuriantly on the 
mountain slopes of Peru, the crops often being so heavy 
as to necessitate artificial support for the branches, yet the 
export from Mollendo, the shipping port, amounts only 
to about 16,000 pounds per annum. It ranges in size 
from medium to bold, varying in color from bluish to 
yellow, roasting and drinking with the average of other 
South American sorts, 

Paraguayan Coffee. — The total production of coffee 
in Paraguay is exceedingly small in comparison with 
what might be grown there under more favorable cir- 
cumstances, little or no attention being given to its cul- 
tivation, owing to lack of labor and capital, and notwith- 
standing that it offers a fine field for its more extensive 
growth. 

Brazil being the most extensive coffee-growing country 
in South America and the largest producer of coffee in 
point of quantity of any country in the world needs 
more than a passing notice in this work. The gigantic 
extent to which its production has been carried there, 
the enormous, almost fabulous, amount of capital invested 
in its cultivation, the multitude of people employed in its 
preparation and handling, including the quantity of ship- 
ping employed in its transportation invests it with great 
importance. One must have been an eye-witness of the 
immense bustle occasioned by the coffee trade of Rio 
and Santos, must have observed the feverish excitement 
and the unprecedented rapidity with which it is prepared, 
transported, bagged, unbagged, mixed, rebagged, loaded, 
marketed and shipped before he can form any conception 
of the extent of the coffee industry in Brazil. 

In 17 1 8 the Dutchcolony of Surinam began to introduce 
and cultivate coffee in Guiana from plants received from 



172 BRAZILIAN COFFEES. 



Java, and in 1722 De la Motte, the French Governor of the 
adjoining colony of Cayenne, having business in Surinam, 
contrived by an artifice to bring away with him from there 
a small coffee plant, which in 1725 had produced many 
thousands which were distributed among all the French 
colonies on the mainland, its propagation extending to 
Para in 1732, the first coffee plantation formed in Brazil 
being commenced in that province a few years later. Its 
cultivation, however, made but little progress there until 
about 1767, when its cultivation was still further extended 
to the province of Maranhao, where it soon increased 
rapidly under a more careful and systematic management. 
In 1774 a Belgian monk named Molke procured some 
coffee plants from a prosperous plantation in Maranhao, 
which had previously been obtained from Surinam, and 
planted them in the garden of the Capucin monastery of 
Adjuda, then situated in what is now the centre of the 
city of Rio de Janeiro. The plants prospered so well, 
and he becoming convinced of their importance as a 
valuable acquisition to the industries of the country that 
he established a plantation in the vicinity for its more 
systematic cultivation. Joachim Bruneo, the then 
Bishop of Rio de Janeiro, perceiving the valuable bene- 
fits that would result from its more extensive cultivation, 
distributed seeds and plants raised on Molke's plantation 
among the religious institutions and planters of the coun- 
try, recommending and encouraging its cultivation among 
them, but it was not until 1800 that Brazilian coffee 
came to be so highly valued in the markets of the world. 
In that year a planter named Dr. Lecesne, expelled by 
the revolution from San Domingo, settled near Rio and 
introduced the latest improved methods of cultivating 
the coffee plant into that country. From these simple 
and unostentatious beginnings has grown the now 



BRAZILIAN COFFEES. I 73 

enormous coffee industry of Brazil, which at present pro- 
duces more coffee than all the other countries in the 
world combined ; it being calculated that upwards of 
1,500,000 acres of land are under coffee culture there, 
containing nearly 600,000,000 trees, hundreds of millions 
of dollars of capital being invested in its culture, sale 
and transport. The cultivation of coffee in Brazil now 
extends from the banks of the Amazon to the southern 
province of Sao Paulo, and from the coast to the west- 
ern limits of the country, the plant seeming to find the 
requisite conditions of soil and climate in almost every 
part of this vast region, and nearly everywhere giving an 
abundant yield. Its chief zone of production for com- 
mercial purposes, however, is chiefly confined to the coast 
provinces of Bahia, Ceara, Rio Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Minas 
Geraes and Espiritu Santo. 

In Brazil it was formerly the custom to propagate the 
coffee plant by slips or " shoots" cut from the older 
plants on the plantations, but at present it is more generally 
grown from the seed, as in the Eastern countries. The 
seeds are sown in nurseries planted with advanced stalks 
of the mandioca, which serve to shade the sprints while 
young and tender from the extremes of heat and cold 
alike, but are gradually thinned out as the growth of the 
young plants advance, the nursery at this period resembling 
a young plum thicket. When the plants have reached 
a height of from eighteen to twenty-four inches, they are . 
transferred to the plantations and planted from six to 
ten feet apart, according to the district and conditions. As 
a general rule a crop is not expected until four years after 
setting out the young plants, unless when the plants are 
from eighteen months to two years old before transplant- 
ing, in which case a partial crop is obtained at the end of 
the third year. Nearly all over the Brazilian coffee zone the 



174 BRAZILIAN COFFEES. 



plantations extend with the greatest regularity, as far as 
the eye can reach, presenting a most attractive and pleas- 
ing effect, some fazendas (plantations) having as many 
as 350,000 trees, others again having as low as 30,000, 
but all averaging from 500 to 800 trees to the half fane- 
gada (acre), the average annual produce of each tree 
ranging from one to seven pounds of prepared coffee, or 
about one to one and a half pounds per picking of 
cleaned coffee. The plantations situated on high lands 
and exposed to the east being the most productive, but 
prospering equally well in the lowland districts, although 
the product is much inferior in quality and flavor. 
The trees are grown in lines and squares, the face of 
the country in the coffee-growing districts being undulat- 
ing and hilly, a plantation of coffee being at every season 
of the year an object of beauty and interest. The leaves 
are perennially bright and polished, resembling those of 
the laurel when in full bloom, but of a much darker 
green in color, the flowers or blossoms of the purest 
white, growing in tufts along the top of the-branches, and 
blooming so suddenly that in the morning the trees' 
look as if snow had fallen on therrir in flaky wreaths 
during the night, their jasmine-like perfume being power- 
ful enough to be oppressive, but lasting only for a single 
day, being succeeded immediately by branches of imma- 
ture green and the dark-crimson hull of the ripe berries — 
resembling cherries in their brilliancy and size — and 
following each other in quick succession, which added to 
the thick foliage of the trees presents altogether a magni- 
ficent spectacle. 

In Brazil the coffee trees continue to bear from fifteen 
to twenty years, but it is found necessary to the healthy 
development of the plants to keep the ground in good 
condition, and when the interspaces are not cultivated 



BRAZILIAN COFFEES. 1)5 

with other plants — principally corn and beans — as is 
usually the custom, it is annually cleared around the 
roots, a compost of dead leaves and coftee-hulls being 
placed about them. In some districts — notably Sao 
Paulo — many of the trees have been producing con- 
tinuously for twenty-five years, still presenting a vigorous 
appearance and yielding an average each year, while others 
that had attained an age of thirty-five years were cut off 
within eighteen inches of the ground, and two years later 
put forth new branches, presenting all the appearance of 
thriving trees, bearing fruit like much younger trees. 
This is a new and interesting feature in the management 
of the old trunks of coffee trees, one having the advan- 
tage of new growth being secured in one-half the time it 
could be obtained from seedlings, as even should these 
stumps require to be dug around and manured fre- 
quently, it is much more preferable and profitable to the 
trouble, expense and uncertainty connected with the rais- 
ing of new plants from seed, and certainly presents greater 
advantages over the latter method. In Brazil the pick- 
ing is latterly — since the abolishment of slavery — done 
by contract with the fazendon, or proprietor, who only 
requires the services of the pickers to gather the 
berries from the trees, for which labor they are paid 
what is considered to be one-half the value of the 
crude coffee that is gathered by them. The estimate 
placed upon an alqucrie (bushel) of crude berries 
being about seventy-five cents, which, unless the crop is 
good, ordinary hands do not gather more than two bush- 
els per diem ; yet, again, when the crops are large, an 
industrious and skillful picker can average from five to 
eight bushels without effort. The berries are picked by 
hand, the ground being raked clean under the trees pre- 
vious to picking, an immense, broad, flat receptacle of 



176 BRAZILIAN COFFEES.' 

bamboo being placed underneath the trees, the berries 
that fail to fall into this being carefully swept up from 
the clean, smooth ground and emptied into it until filled, 
when it is carried to a point convenient to the roadside 
and emptied in piles, from which the coffee is afterwards 
?iauled in ox-carts to a large building known as the 
terreiro or drying-yard. Picking commences in April, 
and is continued almost uninterruptedly until November, 
and after the coffee is gathered it is carted just as it 
comes from the plantations, mixed with leaves, stalks 
and stones to the drying-house and spread out on the 
terraces, large smooth, concrete pavements, to dry in the 
sun until the berries become black and crisp, after which 
they are "hulled" or cleaned by one of two methods: 
one the old or " Monjola process," and the other the 
new or " Despolpodor" process. 

Brazilian coffees are known to commerce as Bahia, 
Ceara, Capatinea, Rios, Santos and Maragogipi. 

Bahia — Is a small, uneven greenish bean, very inferior 
in style and appearance, usually "stemmy" and stony 
and thickly interspersed with black or^ immature beans, 
and is usually branded " S " or " S S." The roast is 
poor, irregular and quakery, the liquor thin and grassy 
or unripe in flavor. 

Ceara — Resembles Bahia somewhat in general char- 
acter, being poorly prepared and very unsightly in the 
natural state, the body and flavor being still more inferior. 

Capatinea — Grown in the province of Espiritu Santo, 
but also known to trade as " Victoria " from the port of 
shipment, is a large whitish, soft and flabby bean 
coffee, quakery in the roast and watery and flavorless in 
the cup. 



BRAZILIAN COFFEES. I 77 



Rio Coffees — Are almost too well known to need 
description ; the bean, however, varies widely in size 
and color^ ranging from small to large, and from dark 
green to light yellow, being known to trade as " Light," 
" Dark " and " Golden." They are heavy in body, 
possessing a flavor and aroma peculiarly distinct from that 
of all other coffees, and which is so marked in degree as 
to be readily detected by the most inexpert, excepting 
" Golden Rio " which, aside from its rich color, possesses 
a markedly pungent liquor and pleasing flavor. 

Pole-cat Rio — Is a very dark, almost black bean 
coffee, which, although muddy and dark in liquor, is 
nevertheless much appreciated by many coffee drinkers. 

Liberian Rio — Grown from Liberian plants in Brazil, 
is little thought of, producing little, and that irregularly. 
The fruit also requires special machinery to prepare it, 
the husk being too thick and leathery to pass through 
the regular machines. 

Rio Hache — Though frequently classed with Rio 
coffees, as a matter of fact is not grown in that country, 
but in Colombia. The bean is yellowish-brown in color, 
light in weight arfd liquor, and somewhat mawkish in 
flavor. Like all other coffees, Rios improve with age, 
and with time loses their harsh flavor, which becomes 
greatly modified by storing, disappearing altogether in 
from three to four years, particularly when kept in an 
even temperature. 

Santos Coffees — Produced in the adjoining province 
of Sao Paulo, but deriving its trade-name from the port of 
shipment, ranges from small to large in size and from 
green and yellow to a full white in color according to its 
maturity, it is an immensely popular sort among Ameri- 
can consumers as well as in-Europe, having more than 



178 OTHER BRAZILIAN VARIETIES. 

doubled in consumption in recent years. It is fast sup- 
planting the milder growths of other countries, the 
finer grades being frequently substituted for Maracaibo, 
and even Java, by unprincipled dealers. While many 
of them roast " quakery," they are nevertheless almost 
invariably smooth and pleasing in liquor and flavor. 

Red-bean Santos — Grown in the Campinas district, 
is medium in size and reddish in color — a peculiarity 
derived from the soil, which is composed of tej'va rocJia 
(red earth) — and is claimed to be richer and more 
flavory than either the white or yellow bean varieties. 

Mocha-seed Santos— Is a small-bean variety, grown 
from Bourbon seed or transplants, and is fast becoming a 
very popular sort. It is shipped principally to France, 
where it masquerades under the name of Mocha, thereby 
diminishing the demand for this favorite sort in propor- 
tion to the amount distributed. 

MaragOgipi — Which was discovered in the province 
of Bahia some years since, is claimed to be an indige- 
neous variety and is called after the district where it was 
first found. The bean is as large as Liberian, but flat in 
form and varies in color from a very light to a dark- 
green, but while heavy and full in body and fair in qual- 
ity, it is yet lacking in all the essentials of a fine coflee, 
disappointing the great expectations at one time formed 
of it. 

Cafe des Aguas — Is so termed from blossoming in the 
rainy season, and which has the effect of stunting and 
deforming the beans. The bean is oblong in shape and 
imperfectly formed, while the liquor is thin and watery 
a,nd devoid of flavor. 



OJHER BRAZILIAN VARIETIES. 1 79 

Cafe Vermelho — Is the regular " Red-berry " species, 
and is so named to distinguish it from a new variety said 
to have been recently discovered and termed 

Cafe Amarello — Or " Yellow-berry," recently found 
in the district of Botucatu, and is so called because the 
ripe berry is yellow instead of red. It is superior to 
the ordinary sort, not on account of any difference in the 
size of the bean, but according to the chemical analysis 
of experts, who claim that it is much richer in caffeine. 

Brazilian Java. — Extensive plantations of Java coffee 
plants have lately been formed in Brazil as an experiment, 
but does not produce such heavy and regular crops as in 
the original soil. 

Goyaz Coffee — Is a wild species, discovered a few 
years ago in the province of Goyaz, but is little thought 
of by planters or dealers, being wild and grassy in flavor. 

In Brazil the planters generally forv/ard their crops to 
a Coniniissario or factor at the shipping port, who acts 
as their agent, the coffee being received in varying lots 
and conditions from different growers, no uniformity 
being observed in the kind of bag or quantity. The com- 
missarios again disposes of it to the Ensaccadcres, who 
are the actual buyers at first hands, and who store it in 
large warehouses, where it is graded and bagged, and 
stored until required for shipment to the foreign markets. 
The sacks of coffee being piled on either side, each being 
numbered and further distinguished by some special 
mark or brand. At the present time many commissarios 
have the coffee weighed as they sell it, but sales between 
the commissarios and ensaccaderes are never con- 
cluded in Rio without the assistance of a Corretov or 
broker, while in Santos, where the exporter buys his 
coffee direct from the commissario, it is sold mostly 



l8o OTHER BRAZILIAN VARIETIES. 

without the intervention of a broker, the terms of 
payment being fixed at thirty days. 

Brazilian coffees are generically classed in the Rio and 
Santos markets as " Highland " and " Lowland " and are 
graded as Superior or " Choice," Primera or " First, " 
Primera boa or " Good first," Primera regular or 
" Regular first," Primera ordinaria or " Ordinary first," 
Segunda or " Second," Segunda boa or " Good second," 
and Segunda ordinaria or " Ordinary second." Importa- 
tions are generally in " Cargoes " divided into " Invoices " 
or " Lines," designated by letters. An invoice consisting 
of a number of " Chops " denoted by figures, each chop 
varying from the other in quality, size anc color. In the 
American market the coffee is subdivided into six grades, 
known to trade as "Fancy," "Choice," "Prime," "Good," 
"Fair," "Ordinary" and "Common," the first four 
grades being further distinguished by the terms " Light," 
" Medium " and " Dark," and by prefixing the term 
" Strict " or " Strictly" correct selections of each grade 
may be secured. 

There is no standard grade, nor is it possible to estab- 
lish one, owing to the changes made by time in the ap- 
pearance of the coffee, which causes the different grades 
to vary with the size, color and quality of the coffee and 
the condition of the market on arrival. On an active 
and rising market the coffee that on a steady market 
would be denominated only " Fair," suddenly becomes 
"Prime" or "Good," and on a dull or declining market 
may be classed as " Ordinary." The following consti- 
tutes the different grades as they are generally accepted 
on this market : — 

Fancy Rio or Santos — Is large, bold and uniform 
in size and color, free from all imperfections, and attrac- 
tive in style and appearance, 



OTHER VARIETIES. 



Prime — Is very clean and regular in size and color, 
but deficient in the rich, pleasing appearance of the 
former. 

Good — Is acknowledged as the average or "Standard" 
grade, and ranges from clean to strictly clean, and is 
uniform in bean and color. 

Fair — Is only moderately clean, containing some 
black or broken beans and other slight imperfections. 

Ordinary — Is irregular in size and color, and un- 
sightly in appearance, containing much black beans and 
other extraneous matter. 

Common — Is the poorest grade, and is generally full 
of black and broken beans, stems, hulls and chaff, having 
no definite color, and very unsightly in general appear- 
ance. On the Coffee Exchanges they are graded numeri- 
cally from No. i to No. lo, No. 7, or " Low ordinary," 
being adopted as the " Standard grade," upon which all 
transactions are based. In point of quantity Brazil heads 
the list of coffee-producing countries, its annual product 
ranging from 7,000,000 to 8,000,000 bags of 130 pounds 
each, 75 per cent, of which is exported to the United 
States, the remainder going chiefly to Europe. 

Pea-berry Coffees, — Also known to trade as " Male- 
berry " and " Pearl-bean," are concave-convex in form 
and may belong to any variety, from Rio to Java. Their 
peculiar shape being accounted for as follows : Each 
Perfect coffee berry should contain two oval seeds or beans 
placed facing each other in the fruit or pod, but it most 
frequently occurs that only one seed will form in it, the 
other becoming abortive. The one forming receiving all 



182 OTHER VARIETIES. 



the nourishment of the investing coats, forces itself 
against the dividing membranes and encountering no 
opposition naturally develops into a larger bean, which 
in the process of growth assumes a shape different from 
that of the regular or " flat bean " of commerce. 

Cherry-dried Coffee — Is a term applied in the East 
to coffees cured by the old or sun-dried process. After 
the berries have been harvested they are spread out on 
" patios " or terraces exposed to the sun's rays for a period 
covering from six to eight weeks, or until they are 
thoroughly dried, before being pulped and hulled. Mean- 
while they are raked and turned over once a day during 
the drying period, in order to prevent heating and fer- 
mentation, and at night heaped up and covered over with 
matting or other material to protect them in case of rain, 
and from the heavy dews, until the process is completed, 
after which they are pulped and hulled by crushing in a 
mill 

Washed Coffees — Are so termed from being pre- 
pared by the new or West India process, by which the 
coffee is pulped immediately after being picked, the 
berries being placed in a large vat and the pulp soaked 
off. The coffee in the parchment left in the vat is kept 
in constant motion by agitation with a kind of rake 
or shovel to wash it well, the water being constantly 
changed also while the washing continues, to remove the 
debris with which the coffee charges the water, the coffee 
sinking, while the pulp, blighted berries and other 
extraneous matter such as stems and leaves are floated 
off by the water, after which the beans are again washed 
and spread out on mats to dry. By this method the 
coffee must be crushed the same day, otherwise it will 
ferment and the flavor be greatly injured. 



OTHER VARIETIES. l8t 



Triage — Is composed chiefly of dead or decayed 
beans, which are invariably sour, bitter and black, being 
entirely destitute of the active principle of coffee, con- 
taining no aroma and invariably injuring and detracting 
from any coffee in which they may be mixed — as they 
usually are — ^no matter how small the quantity used. 

Screenings — Are composed of the dust, chaff and 
mutilated beans separated from the regular grades of 
coffee in the process of milling, and drink well accord- 
ing to the variety or grade from which they are obtained, 
but are generally roasted, ground and mixed with chicory, 
and sold in package form. 

Skimmings — Are usually composed of that portion 
of the cargo stowed in the bottom or sides of the vessels 
in which it is imported, or of the storehouse sweepings 
after the regular coffee has been delivered. A greater or 
less portion of all cargoes are found damaged by damp- 
ness or bilge-water during the voyage, thus staining and 
discoloring the coffee, rendering it mouldy or musty, 
The strained and damaged bags are emptied and the tainted 
coffee " skimmed" off, milled, rebagged and sold under 
the head of " Skimmings." They are generally branded 
" G. S." (Good skimmings), " G. L. S." (Good light 
skimmings), " G. D. S." (Good dark skimmings), " F. S." 
(Fair skimmings), and " S. S." (Store or ship sweepings) 
Notwithstanding their origin many of those coffees roast 
and drink exceedingly well, but great care must be exer- 
cised by the dealer in selecting them, as they may taste 
of the bilge-water or be mixed with coal, iron, chips and 
other extraneous substances. 

United States Coffee — The Department of Agricul- 
ture at Washington has recently issued a circular rela- 
tive to the possibility of coffee culture in some of the 



184 OTHER VARIETIES. 



Southern States, in which it is led to believe that the 
soil and climatic conditions of Texas, Florida and Lower 
California will be found suitable to the profitable cultiva- 
tion of coffee. It is also claimed that a species of wild 
coffee has been discovered in the two latter States, and 
that in California seed has been planted obtained from 
Costa Rica with satisfactory results. A coffee planter 
from Guatemala has recently been investigating the soil 
and climate of San Bernardino in Lower California with 
a view to the introduction of coffee culture in that sec- 
tion. The conditions there, it is stated, are very favorable 
for its profitable production, and he has offered to invest 
capital in a company to be organized to start the industry. 



^^■OFFEE undergoes essential chemical changes in 
I j J the process of roasting. In the raw or natural 
state the coffee-bean is tough and horny in struc- 
ture and entirely devoid of the appearance, character 
and peculiar aroma that so distinguishes it in the 
roasted condition, and by which it is best known to 
the public. The testa or investing membrane of the 
raw bean has a layer of long cells with a peculiar pitted 
structure, containing a crystaline substance chemically 
termed Caffeine^ and another known as Caffeic, or tannic 
acid, while the inner substance consists of an assem- 
blage of vesicles of an angular form, the cavities of 
which include in the form of little drops a considerable 
quantity of a highly aromatic oil technically termed 
Caffcone, on the presence and amount of which the 
fragrance and active principles of the coffee depends, 
and by which its commercial value in the roasted state is 
estimated. The existence of this " coffee oil " makes itself 
known in a striking manner by roasting; being driven out 
of the beans by the intense heat, it is partially volatilized 
and, together with other products of the roasting, produces 
the characteristic aroma peculiar to roasted coffee, 
an odor possessed by no other known substance. 
In the operation of roasting the beans swell up and 
open at the furrow by the liberation of the gases within 



lS6 ROASTlNa AND GLAZING. 

their substance, their weight decreasing, but vokime 
increasing in proportion to the extent to Avhich the opera- 
tion is carried, developing the aromatic oil and liberating 
at the same time a portion of the caffeine from its 
combination with the caffeic or tannic acid. The 
amount of this aromatic oil contained in coffee varies 
from 8 to 13 per cent, at least, one-half of which is lost 
by evaporation during the roasting process, so that it 
may prove a paying experiment to attempt to collect it, 
especially in large establishments where large quantities 
of coffee are roasted and several pounds of this valuable 
oil are dissipated daily, which would no doubt find a 
ready market at a good profit for the making of liqueurs, 
or medicinal use. 

Before being roasted coffee also contains fron 6 to 8 
per cent, of sugar, which after roasting is reduced to as 
low as I per cent, and sometimes even to zero, from 
which it would appear that the description of sugar (cane) 
present in the raw coffee suffers destruction during roast- 
ing, which, however, is not the case, as in the process of 
roasting the saccharine matter in the raw bean is con- 
verted into caramel. A change in the fat of the raw coffee 
is also brought about by the roasting, for where ether 
extracts only some four to five parts of fat from the raw 
coffee beans, it readily extracts double that quantity from 
the roasted beans. So striking is this fact that Von Bibra 
has even credited the roasting process with the produc- 
tion of fat, whereas the action is only mechanical in 
bursting the fat-cells of the raw bean, thereby rendering 
the fat accessible to the solvent action of the ether. 

The operation of roasting also tends to make coffee 
soluble in boiling water, as when raw coffee is perfectly 
exhausted by means of boiling water, it yields up only 25 
per cent, which passes into solution, while roasted coffee, 



ROASTING AND GLAZING. 187 

on the other hand, when completely exhausted by means 
of boiling water yields readily upwards of 40 per cent, 
of soluble matter, proving that in actually using coffee 
as a beverage, we are not in the habit of making any- 
thing like a complete extraction, as only some 10 to 12 
per cent, of the active principles of the coffee passes into 
the liquid. 

The modern appliances for the roasting of coffee are 
numerous and labor-saving to a great extent, many of 
them are, however, calculated only to enhance the ap- 
pearance of the bean, while others enable the roaster to 
obtain almost to perfection the full development of the 
aromatic properties of the coffee. Coffee is roasted for 
commercial purposes and domestic use in a large sheet- 
steel or malleable-iron cylinder mounted on a hollow 
axle, so as to revolve over a brisk fire and allow the gases 
generated during the torrefaction to escape. The surface 
of the cylinder is perforated with a number of small holes 
for the purpose of allowing the vapor arising from the 
coffee in the process of roasting to pass off readily, and 
through the interior runs laterally four ridges, the object 
of which is to toss it about in all directions, causing it 
to pass from end to end, and diffuse a uniform heat to 
every part of the cofffce in order to make the "roast" 
even and regular in appearance. This cylinder is again 
encased in a frame brick-work at the bottom of which is 
built a coal fire well distributed so as to heat all portions 
of the cylinder at the same time during the operation. 
On the outer head it has a small opening through which 
the operator occasionally inserts a " tryer " to enable 
him to note the progress made as the process advances, 
the cylinder being also so arranged that it can be drawn 
from over the fire when it is required to either fill or 
empty it through a slide or hopper in the centre. It is 



1 88 ROASTING AND GLAZING. 



operated by steam-power, revolving slowly but regularly, 
and having a capacity of from 25 to 300 pounds. 

After roasting, the coffee is run off into a large wire- 
bottomed box termed a '* cooler," to the end of which is 
fitted a powerful fan or "blower" used for forcing cold 
air through the hot beans and preventing the volatile oil 
from exuding, the coffee being thoroughly agitated 
during the process, the hulls, chaff and stems being 
removed meantime to a large extent by the fan and 
sieve. Thirty-five to forty-five minutes is usually the time 
consumed in the operation, the former for a "Light" 
and the latter for a high or "Dark" roast, the entire pro- 
cess of roasting, cooling and rebagging occupying about 
one hour. In roasting, coffee loses in weight from 12 to 16 
per cent., according to the age and nature of the coffee 
under treatment and the extent to which the operation is 
carried, the average, however, being 14 per cent, for old 
and well-seasoned coffee, which accounts for the rela- 
tively higher price — three to six cents per pound — of 
roasted coffees, according to the price green and the loss 
per cent, in roasting. But, it at the same time increases 
in bulk — 100 volumes of raw coffee yielding from 150 to 
160 volumes of roasted — that is, two pints of raw beans 
will yield three pints roasted. It also loses from i to 2 
per cent, more in the warm months of summer than in the 
damp months of winter, for which reason it should not be 
roasted as high in the former season as in the latter, owing 
to its greater tendency to sweat and absorb the higher 
temperature, thus causing the volatile oil to exude, and 
dissipate and impart an astringent taste to the infusion. 
When coffee is roasted light-brown, or until it assumes a 
pale-chestnut color, the loss is from 13 to 14 per cent, the 
quantity of extract obtained from such roast by means 
of boiling water ranging from 20 to 21 per cent, of the 



ROASTING AND GLAZING. 1 89 

weight, while the loss in weight of the extract will be 
much larger if the roasting process is continued until 
the color becomes dark-brown or black by over-roasting. 
New, moist and light coffees lose a larger percentage than 
old, dry and solid ones, the average being about 14 per 
cent. The operation of roasting coffee is one of the great- 
est exactness, amounting almost to an art, perfect roasting 
requiring not alone skill and judgment but experience 
and constant practice, as not only the style, strength and 
flavor but also the commercial value of the coffee depends 
upon the operator deciding when it is properly parched 
or roasted. It is also one of a crucial nature, for equally 
by insufficient as well as by excessive roasting, much of 
the aroma of the infusion is lost, the beverage under 
either of these circumstances being neither agreeable to 
the palate or exhilarating in its influence. The operator, 
for these reasons, must judge of the exact amount of heat 
required for the adequate roasting of the different varie- 
ties, which, while variable, the range of roasting tempera- 
ture proper for roasting the various grades is only very 
narrow. In a modern, well-equipped coffee-roasting 
establishment, the coffee is handled almost exclusively 
by machinery, being fed into the cylinder from hoppers, 
emptied into the cooler from the cylinder and from thence 
into the bins by drafts of air through tubes or pocket- 
elevators, so that the coffee is scarcely once handled 
during the entire process. 

The entire art of coffee roasting maybe summed up in 
the following sequence: (i) Starting the machinery in 
motion. (2) Starting a brisk fire with enough coal for a 
single roast. (3) Putting in the coffee before the cylinder 
becomes too hot. (4) Opening the draft and keeping up 
a brisk fire during what is termed the steaming period. 
(5) When the beans begin to crackle and the steam 



190 ROASTING AND GLAZING. 

changes into an aromatic vapor, rake the fire well, put 
on suf^cient coal to make the next roast and shut off the 
draft. (6) Empty the coffee from the cylinder into the 
cooler and cool off rapidly, then sift and pack. If a light 
color is required roast quickly, if a dark, slowly. The 
exact time for a perfect roast under these rules depend 
to a great extent on the size of the cylinder, the quantity 
of coffee to be roasted, the amount of heat and the color 
desired, the average ranging from 30 to 40 minutes. The 
addition of a little water to the coffee when it begins to 
crackle in the cylinder, will cause the beans to swell up, 
liberate the chaff and make the process safer by extin- 
guishing any sparks that may by accident occur in the 
cylinder. It also preserves the aroma longer to some 
extent when used in moderation, but will not, as is some- 
times claimed, protect it from atmospheric influences, 
but on the contrary makes it more liable to such influ- 
ences, particularly when used in excess. 

When the beans begin to crackle the revolutions of 
the cylinder are increased for a short time in order to- 
prevent them from scorching or burning, a bluish vapor 
is emitted at the same time, which indicates that the 
coffee is nearly if not quite roasted. At this stage the 
operator pours on the coffee a quantity of water to pre- 
vent it from burning, the rapid evaporation from which 
reduces the intense heat and causes the beans to burst 
open and swell up to about double in size. The use of 
a little lard at this juncture will impart to the beans a 
smoother, glossier and more attractive appearance. The 
addition of water in the roasting of coffee is not, as is 
generally supposed, intended to increase its weight — 
unless when used to excess — as the intense heat converts 
it into steam which rapidly passes off in the air, many 
old roasters contending that coffee cannot be properly 



ROASTING AND GLAZING. I9I 



roasted without the use of some water. In the proper 
roasting of coffee a strong, well-distributed heat extend- 
ing the entire length of the cylinder is imperative. The 
cylinder should never be allowed to lie empty over the 
fire for any length of time or become too hot before the 
coffee is put in, as the beans will become mottled or 
"specked" if poured in while in that condition, thus 
detracting from the appearance and value of the roasted 
coffee. 

An experienced roaster can readily discern when the 
coffee is properly roasted, by the light bluish vapor 
arising from the coffee, as well as by the smell of the 
aromatic principle developed as it evaporates from the 
cylinder at this stage of the operation, without even once 
examining it during the process. A perfect " light roast " 
should be free from specks and other blemishes, of a cin- 
namon-brown color, even, uniform and oily in appearance, 
much depending on the amount of this latter property 
developed in the process, imparting as it does a pleasanter 
and more agreeable aroma as the quantity is increased, 
making the liquor blander and more mellow in the cup. 
While a perfect high or "dark roast" when required 
should be of a deep chestnut or chocolate-brown color, 
oily and free from all burnt or scorched beans, as the 
latter, no matter how few the number, invariably spoil 
the flavor of the coffee in the infusion, irrespective of its 
fineness or value. Over-roasting dissipates the active 
principle ^Caffeine) to which the coffee owes its refresh- 
ing and stimulating properties while under-roasting 
in>parts to the infusion a raw, uncooked, grassy or 
astringent flavor by not properly developing it. So that 
the finest grades of coffee when imperfectly roasted — that 
is, be under or overdone — yield an inferior liquor to the 
poorer grades when properly roasted. As stated before, 



192 ROASTING AND GLAZING. 

coffee contains a crystaline substance termed caffeine 
(identical with the theine of tea), which is volatile in 
its nature, and every care must be taken to retain this 
principle in the coffee, for which reason the beans should 
be roasted only until they are of a pale-brown color; 
again, if they are roasted too dark this essential property 
is destroyed. 

The proper cooling of coffee after roasting is also an 
operation of great importance. If the coffee has been 
properly roasted and the beans well developed, it must be 
cooled quickly to prevent them from becoming too dark, 
colored or mottled in appearance. When the coffee has 
been cooled and cleaned it is then packed, the operations 
of roasting, cooling and rebagging occupying altogether 
about one hour. 

In France and other European countries it is the cus- 
tom to roast coffee in small quantities, so that the whole 
"charge" is well under the control of the operator dur- 
ing the process, while in this country large roasts are the 
rule, in dealing with which much difficulty is experienced 
in producing uniform torrefaction as well as in stopping 
the process at the proper moment. A novel method 
for roasting coffee in use in France is to put it in an 
iron globe, suspended over a brisk fire, and containing 
a tubular shaft perforated with holes smaller than the 
beans, through which passes the vapor generated from 
the coffee in the process of roasting and issuing out 
of either end of the shaft or axis of the globe. As 
these openings are small, but a limited amount of the 
vapor escapes, thus confining the aroma within the globe 
and securing the retention of the volatile or essential 
element of the coffee to a greater degree than is possible 
by the cylindrical method of roasting. When the globe 
is filled and suspended over the fire an iron cap is placed 



ROASTING AND GLAZING. I93 

over it so as to completely surround it, but leaving an 
intervening space between it of about three inches, the 
object of which is to secure the full power of the heat, 
which being so confined circulates completely around the 
globe, the retention of the vapor under this high pressure 
preserving to a still greater degree the aroma of the 
coffee. The application of the heat by this method is 
very uniform, while the motion of the globe distributes 
the beans equally about the interior and thus removes 
any possible chance of scorching. 

The roasting process also usually develops in many 
coffees more or less whitish beans, technically termed 
" quakers " but more properly " blights," being in reality 
blighted or immature beans, which, having ripened to an 
extent on the tree and after obtaining a certain growth 
cease to draw further nutriment from it, thus failing to 
develop into healthy fruit. These peculiar beans detract 
considerably from the value of the coffee, and cannot always 
be detected in the natural state except by experts and 
others accustomed to the constant handling of raw coffee, 
but in the roasted condition their real character is unmis- 
takably shown, presenting as they do a yellowish-white 
color, totally devoid of the moisture, oil and flavor so 
characteristic of the healthy bean. They exist to a much 
greater extent in some varieties more than others, most 
notably in lowland and coast-grown coffees — in mild 
grades more than strong — the only kinds most unaffected 
being mountain-grown and " washed " coffees, the 
blighted beans in the latter rising to the surface in the 
process of washing and carried off by the water. Some 
authorities contend that these "blights " or " quakers " 
in coffee instead of being, as might be naturally expected, 
detrimental or injurious to its drinking qualities really 
improve it by softening or mellowing what may otherwise 



194 ROASTING AND GLAZING. 

prove to be a harsh or astringent flavor, thereby ren- 
dering it smoother and more palatable. Such a claim 
is simply preposterous, as the said beans are entirely 
devoid of any of the properties distinguishing coffee, 
possessing neither caffeine or caffeone, the two prin- 
cipal constituents of coffee, and an infusion prepared 
exclusively of " quakers " will be found to resemble 
more closely, in flavor and aroma, a decoction made from 
roasted peanuts than anything else it may be likened to. 
Raw coffees are distinguished in commerce by the 
names of the countries, districts, localities, plantations 
in which they are grown or from the ports of export, 
and it is found that the produce of each particular 
country and respective district maintains a fairly constant 
and distinctive flavor and character of its own. While 
in the roasted state this distinctive character disappears, 
the process of roasting largely destroying these distin- 
guishing features of raw or green coffee, making it very 
difficult for any but experts to determine from its appear- 
ance when once roasted its kind or origin. After coffee 
has been once roasted it should be kept in air-tight bins 
and sold or used as fresh-roasted as possible, as after the 
process the aroma constantly escapes, thereby losing its 
strength and fragrance rapidly on exposure to the oxydiz- 
ing influences of the atmosphere. Neither should it be 
exposed in damp or humid weather, as it constantly 
absorbs moisture which makes it tough and difficult to 
grind, or placed in the vicinity of any foul or foreign 
odors, the porous and sensitive nature of the roasted 
bean making it liable to absorb such flavors, for which 
reason wooden and freshly-painted bins should never be 
used to hold roasted coffee, as it readily absorbs the wood 
and paint flavors, which become very pronounced in the 
infusion. 



GLAZING. 195 



It has been the custom for some years back to coat or 
glaze coffee with certain gluey or starchy compounds, 
ostensibly to protect the beans from the oxydizing influ- 
ences of the atmosphere, preserve the aroma and clarify 
the liquor in preparation, each roaster and dealer having 
a different compound for the purpose. It is most gener- 
ally composed of various glues, moss and other starchy 
substances and is usually prepared by placing the mate- 
rials composing the compound in a cask, vat or tank 
filled with boiling water conveyed through pipes or by 
injecting steam, thoroughly stirring it at the same time 
until it is mixed to the requisite consistency. After the 
solution is prepared it is applied to the coffee while hot, 
generally in the cylinder while revolving, which diffuses 
the material and imparts an even and uniform coating 
to the coffee, adhering and hardening as it cools. But 
the claims made by roasters and others who coat or 
glaze coffee, that large quantities of eggs are used exclu- 
sively in the preparation of the glazing compound is 
simply absurd, as is also the claim that it is resorted to 
for the purpose of closing the pores, to protect and retain 
the aroma and for self-settling purposes. The real object 
being to conceal defects, disguise low grades and damaged 
coffees, as well as to add weight and color to light, chaffy 
and "quakery" coffees, the process adding all the way 
from 5 to 10 per cent, to the weight, according to the 
nature of the coffee and the character of the substance 
used ; light, chaffy-bean coffees absorbing more of the 
material than the hard and solid ones, while the softer 
and rougher the bean the more it improves in appearance 
by the process. 



196 GLARING. 

What is known as the " Egg-glaze " is prepared from 
eggs alone, mashed and applied after the coffee has been 
first cooled, and then baked on by means of a hot blast, 
when it forms a hard, transparent shell, protecting the 
coffee until it is ground and ready for use ; and also 
serving to clarify the liquor in the pot after infusion. 
Another composed of one part gum arable dissolved 
in water, to which is added four parts starch, with suffi- 
cient water to make it limped, the whole being boiled 
for upwards of twenty minutes, and which is best accom- 
plished by inserting a small pipe of live steam from the 
boiler into the compound until it is reduced to the con- 
sistency of cream ; then, after stirring well, it is poured 
on the coffee while in the cylinder as it revolves, or it 
may be spread over it while in the cooler, if proper care 
be taken to diffuse it well. Still another excellent com- 
pound for glazing coffee is prepared from one part Irish 
moss, one part gelatine, one part isinglass, one ounce 
sugar and two dozen eggs, the first three ingredients 
being first boiled in water, then strained and applied as in 
foregoing formula. For the purpose of imparting a lus- 
trous aspect to roasted coffee, a liquid has recently been 
invented, the composition of which is so far unknown. 
It has a specific gravity of 0.868 at 15 degrees, burning 
with a sooty flame and leaving no fixed residue. It 
absorbs no iodine when treated, and is but little affected 
by chromic acid or concentrated sulphuric acid, taking 
only a slight color when treated with the latter. It is clear 
and oily in appearance, but entirely free from color, taste, 
or smell, and mixes in all proportions with petroleum, 
from which fact it would appear to be nothing more than 
a highly purified petroleum oil, in which case it must 
be classed among the illegitimate additions to roasted 
coffee. 



GRINDING. 197 



The process of grinding the roasted bean is also one 
that requires more attention than is generally bestowed 
on it. Coarse-ground coffees require protracted boil- 
ing in order to extract its full strength, and too much 
boiling is fatal to the production of good coffee in the 
cup. But, on the other hand, it may be ground too fine, 
so that just to what degree of fineness it should be ground 
depends in a great measure on the method of preparing 
it for use. 



oh:.ap*^e>i« v^ir. 



orioiv. 



\| N commerce coffee is to be met with in three condi- 
II tions — Raw or unroasted, Roasted and Ground — 
^^ and, as may be inferred, it is in the latter condition 
that it is most Hable to the chief adulterations, so that with 
the raw and simply roasted coffee the public analyst will 
have very little to do, his services being principally 
required in dealing with ground coffee alone. But at the 
same time it is also subject to much manipulation and 
sophistication in the two first conditions also, scarcely 
any dietic article being so persistently adulterated. 
From the time of picking and preparing coffee for 
market until it finally reaches the table of the consumer, 
there is probably no article of diet subjected to more or 
as many forms of manipulation, sophistication, substitu- 
tion and adulteration as coffee. The producer mixes one 
variety with another, the refuse of the old and inferior 
with the new and choice, while the commission agent at 
the shipping ports manipulates it again by changing the 
grade or altering the quality by running one grade with 
another in order to complete his consignment. Again, 
on its arrival in the consuming countries it is frequently 
emptied out of the original packages, separated or run 
together as required, the bags turned inside out, and the 
marks altered in order to conceal any stained or damaged 



200 RAW OR GREfN COFFEES. 



in transit. All " bilge-water " or otherwise damaged coffee 
being picked over, the musty beans set aside, milled or 
cleaned, rematted or rebagged as the case may be, and 
eventually sold as sound, but which no process of roast- 
ing or glazing can eradicate. But while almost all varie- 
ties pass through more or less manipulation or substitu- 
tion, from the producing to the consuming countries, it 
does not always follow that it is detrimental to the coffee. 



Rios — Are most subject to sophistication by altering the 
color from light to green and dark to meet the demand 
for each particular kind, the light Rios being converted 
into dark by the application of a preparation of " bone 
black," and into yellow or golden by the use of chromate 
of lead, or into green by a combination composed of 
both compounds. This dangerous and iniquitous prac- 
tice is resorted to in order to cater to the prejudices of 
dealers and consumers in the different sections of the 
country for "Light," "Dark," "Green" and "Golden 
Rios," as the case maybe. The cosmetic is best detected 
by the simple process of washing in a little warm water 
and rubbing with a dry towel, exposing the natural color 
of the bean, whatever the original may be, or by cutting 
the bean in half and seeing if the color runs through. 

Maracaibos — In the raw or natural state are princi- 
pally substituted with large, white-bean Santos, Savanilla, 
San Domingo, Mexican, Salvador or other Central Ameri- 
can coffees as well as by transferring the lower into high- 
grade bags. While La Guayras are usually polished or 
" soapstoned," and converted into Rios when the finer 
grades of the latter are scarce or high. 



RAW OR GREElSf COFFEES. 26 1 



Javas — Are generally either substituted, mixed, 
sweated or colored artificially. In the first case any 
large, whitish, yellowish or brownish variety, such as 
Maracaibo, Savanilla and Santos is used for the purpose 
or mixed with it in the natural state, and can only be 
detected by a familiar knowledge of the genuine bean. 
The lower and paler grades of Java, such as Lahats and 
Maccassars are usually "colored" or "sweated" for 
the purpose of imparting an aged appearance or the so 
much desired brown color, other spongy-bean coffees 
that easily absorb, and retain the coloring matter being 
frequently subjected to the same processes. While the 
higher grades are more often substituted one for the 
other by changing the mats, such as replacing a Preanger 
with a Timour, an Ankola with Padang or Singapore. 
When simply colored as before described the washing 
it with a little water and rubbing with a dry towel will 
expose the cosmetic, or better still by cutting the sus- 
pected bean open with a sharp pocket-knife, examining 
it through ; if not of the same color to the core it 
is undoubtedly doctored. Another method, when the 
coffee is mixed with Savanilla or other light bean coffee, is 
to place a sample of the suspected coffee on top a vessel 
of water, in which case the hard, solid-bean Java will sink 
to the bottom and the light-bean substitute float on top. 
" Sweated " Javas are browned by placing any fair- 
sized, light-colored variety such as Lahat, Maccassar, 
ordinary Jamaica or Savanilla in a zinc or iron-lined 
room or case surrounded on all sides by pipes, through 
which steam passes and subjecting them to an intense 
heat, the process causing the — whatever little volatile oil 
this class of coffee contains — to exude and impart a 
dark, muddy-red color to the beans. This sophistication 
is best detected by the unnatural, repulsively reddish 



202 RAW OR GREEN COFFEES. 

color produced by the process, by their light weight and 
irregular, unsightly appearance in the hand as well as by 
their nauseous, almost sickening flavor, developed by the 
volatile oil and the zinc, and which is evidently prejudicial 
to the health of the consumer. 

Mocha Coffee, — Probably there is no single variety 
of coffee grown more generally counterfeited or adulter- 
ated than Mocha in the raw or unroasted state, owing to 
its limited supply and high commercial value. In addi- 
tion to the manipulation and substitution which it under- 
goes at the ports of export, by the addition or substitution 
of small-bean Wynaad, Malabar, Ceylon, Bourbon and 
other African varieties annually shipped to Aden for the 
specific purpose of conversion into Mocha, that it has 
become a difficult matter to determine what is true 
Mocha and what is not. The substitutes are first 
separated from the regular crops and then carefully 
picked over and assorted by hand, the better to adapt 
them to their respective markets, and then packed in the 
unique and peculiar packages which distinguish the true 
article from all others. It had at one time been con- 
sidered as next to impossible to tamper with or imitate 
these packages without detection, composed as they are 
of a coarse vegetable material, sewed with a fibrous sub- 
stance that becomes excessively hard and tough by age ; 
but modern ingenuity has found a way in the countries 
of consumption to cut this " Gordian knot," first by a 
process known to the initiated as " stove-piping," by 
which a portion of the genuine coffee is run out of the 
original package with an iron tube resembling a " coffee 
tryer," inserted at one end of the bale and a spurious 
article composed of some small-bean variety, such as 
Santos, Maracaibo or Guatemala, poured in its place and 



RAW OR GREEN COFFEES. 203 

the puncture closed up. Another ingenious method is to 
soften the fibrous cord of which the withes are made, 
and with which the bales are sewn, by a process known 
as " steaming," by which they are softened and drawn 
out, the bales being easily opened entire and the contents 
substituted by the introduction of one or other of the 
same class of coffees already mentioned, and even by 
small-bean Rios, particularly when the former kinds are 
high or difficult to procure. These glaring forms of 
adulteration and sub.stitutions practiced in Mocha coffee 
may be readily detected by a comparison of the mixture 
or contents with a sample of the genuine bean, which is 
invariably small, round, uniform and symmetrical, varying 
in color from a rich olive-green cast, almost translucent 
when new, and a bright-yellowish hue when old, being 
at the same very clean, and attractive in the hand. While 
the adulterants and substitutes are much larger, more 
irregular and varying in size, style, form and color, from 
a dark or grass-green to a pale white, according to the 
age and nature of the coffee used. 

There has recently been discovered another and very 
ingenuous coffee fraud, in which the raw beans look quite 
natural, but yield no coffee liquor on infusion. On close 
inspection these spent or exhausted beans resemble arti- 
ficial coffee beans composed of baked dough colored, but 
a microscopical examination disproves this supposition. 
The beans are genuine coffee beans, but the cells show a 
remarkable freedom from caffeine and the oil of coffee, 
indicating that they had been steeped in water, so that on 
the microscopical examination being supplemented by a 
chemical analysis, the result showed that almost every 
valuable property of the coffee had been removed from the 
beans,evidently for medicinal purposes or the manufacture 
of some extract of coffee, after which they are re-dried and 



204 ROASTED COFFEES. 



disposed of to roasters and unscrupulous dealers as sound 
coffee. The beans of such coffee look quite natural, but 
on close inspection are found to be tough and light, 
yielding a watery and flavorless liquid on infusion. A 
patent has also been recently obtained the purpose of 
which is to impart to coffee beans by a summary opera- 
tion the properties and characteristics possessed by coffee 
which has been stored and kept under favorable condi- 
tions for a comparatively long period of time. The pro- 
cess of maturing or " aging " the coffee consisting in 
spreading out the raw beans in a thin layer between 
alternate layers of damp bags or other textile material 
first by sprinkling a number of bags with water, and 
piling them one on top of the other until they have all 
become uniformly moistened, then spreading out one of 
the bags and laying on it a dry bag upon which is placed 
a layer of green coffee, another dry bag being placed 
over it and a damp bag on that again, and so on to any 
desired height. The pile of bags and coffee thus formed 
is then compressed in order that the dry bags may absorb 
the moisture from the damp bags and also become damp, 
thus maintaining the coffee beans in their confined space 
until the desired maturing or aging effect has been pro- 
duced. 

Are chiefly sophisticated by mixing or substituting 
lower with high-grade coffees, and by coating or glazing 
the beans with some obnoxious compounds as previously 
described. Many of the so-called Javas and other 
high-sounding-name coffees now in the market so much 
vaunted and extolled being nothing more than combina- 
tions of Santos, Maracaibo and other medium grades, 
some of the most reputable consisting merely of Santos 
and Java in the proportions of 40 per cent, of the former 



ROASTED COFFEES. 205 



to 60 per cent, of the latter. The distinguishing features 
of the raw or natural bean being largely altered in the 
process of roasting, making it a difficult matter for any 
but experts to detect this most common form of adultera- 
tion, an acquaintance with the original flavors of the 
different varieties being the only sure means of detection. 
Some years since, there was invented a bean resem- 
bling that of roasted coffee, made from dyed plas- 
ter of paris, which was intended for admixture with 
coffee, and at the present time a far more dangerous 
fraud is being perpetrated in the already too wide field of 
coffee adulteration. It is that of a bogus or artificial 
bean, resembling that of whole roasted coffee, which, on 
analysis, proves to be largely composed of wheat flour, 
mixed with a glutinous compound of cracker dust, paste 
and molasses, moulded in the form of the true coffee 
bean of commerce and flavored with a weak solution of 
caramel or chocolate. These spurious coffee beans are 
not, however, intended to supply in themselves a beverage 
which from any similarity of appearance, taste or effect 
might form a substitute for coffee and cannot therefore be 
regarded as such, but are intended solely as an adulterant 
of whole roasted coffee. It is readily detected by close 
inspection in the hand, but still more so in the cup, 
tasting as it does more like a decoction made from burnt 
dough and molasses. When dissolved in boiling water 
it yields a blackish, muddy liquor akin to slop, leaving 
a thick, greasy residue in the bottom of the vessel. 
The custom of coating or " glazing," now so much in 
vogue anoong roasters and dealers, may also be classed 
among the many, but milder forms of adulteration, which, 
though ostensibly claimed to protect the pores of the 
coffee from the oxydizing influences of the atmosphere, 
preserve its aroma, and at the same time clarify the 



2o6 GROUND COFFEES. 



infusion, is in reality, in nearly all cases, resorted to for 
the purpose of disguising or concealing the defects of 
artificially-colored, stained, damaged and immature or 
" quakery " coffees, or for adding an extra weight of 
from 5 to 6 per cent, to it. 

Are subject to the most extensive adulterations, all 
being more or less sophisticated or adulterated in one 
form or another, chief among which is that of the admix- 
ture of the roasted and ground roots of Chicory, Dande- 
lion, Carrot, Parsnip, Beet and other leguminous vege- 
tables. Peas, Beans, Rye, Rice, Wheat, Barley and 
various other cereal grains, including the seeds of the 
broom, fenugreek, iris and acorn. These various roots 
and seeds, with many more similar substances, have not 
only been used as adulterants, but under various high- 
sounding names several of them have been introduced 
as substitutes for coffee. But so far not a single one of 
them have either merited or obtained any success as 
such, their sole effect being to bring coffee into unde- 
served disrepute as a pleasing and agreeable beverage 
with the public. 

Among the numerous substitutes and adulterants in use 
for coffee may be mentioned first : — 

Rye Coffee. — Prepared from roasted rye and a little 
butter ground fine, and put up in packages. 

Rice Coffee. — Made from roasted rice in the same 
manner as the former and considered a very good sub- 
stitute. 



SUBSTITUTES AND ADULTERANTS. 207 

Malt Coffee. — A preparation made from malt, which 
is first soaked in water at 40 degrees and dried in a 
coffee roaster until the grains assume a glossy-brown 
color is used as a substitute for the coffee of commerce, 
the finished product, when ground and infused, is claimed 
to be a passable coffee substitute. 

Currant Coffee. — Manufactured from the seeds of 
that fruit, washed out of the cake left in making currant 
wine, then roasted and ground, but principally used as an 
adulterant. 

Gooseberry Coffee. — Prepared from the seeds of 
that fruit in the same manner and used as an adulterant 
also. 

Holly Coffee — Is made from the berries of the com- 
mon holly, roasted and moistened with a little lemon 
juice. 

Acorn Coffee — Is prepared from acorns, deprived of 
their shells, husked, dried and roasted in the same man- 
ner as regular coffee. 

Sassafras Coffee. — Manufactured from the fruit or 
root of that plant, or from the bark, cut up, dried and 
roasted, the decoction being very wholesome, and a 
specific for skin diseases. 

Beechmast Coffee. — Made from the roasted and 
ground roots of the beechmast, and also claimed to be 
very wholesome. 

Beet-root Coffee. — Principally used as an adulterant; 
is prepared from the yellow beet-root, sliced, dried in an 
oven and ground with genuine coffee. 

Almond Coffee — Is made from either rye or wheat, 
roasted with almonds and a very small quantity of cassia 
buds, making a very good substitute. 



2oS SUBSTITUTES AND ADULTERANl S. 



Bean Coflfee — Is prepared from ordinary horse-beans, 
roasted along with a httle honey and burnt sugar, a small 
quantity of cassia buds being frequently added when 
removed from the lire, the whole being stirred until cold. 

German Coflfee — Is chiefly made from chicory 
roasted and ground fine, and used either as a substitute 
or an adulterant of the regular coffee of commerce. 

Coflfee-pulp Coflfee. — In Arabia the pulp of the ber- " 
ries, which constitutes about twenty per cent, of the pre- 
pared coffee, is dried and shriveled up by a method 
peculiar to Arabia. This product is known by the dis- 
tinct name of Kislir, a decoction of which forms the com- 
mon beverage of the poorer Arabs. 

French Coflfee. — What is known and celebrated as 
" French Coffee " is made from a mixture of coffee and 
caramel, which must be packed in tins, as otherwise the 
hygroscopic properties of the caramel will cause it to 
absorb moisture, and thereby run to decomposition. 

PelotaS Coflfee — Is also prepared from ground 
acorns and sold under the name of Pelotas, but is exceed- 
ingly dark in liquor, wild and insipid in flavor. 

Corsican Coflfee — Is made from the roasted seeds of 
the Knee-holly, and used extensively on that island as a 
substitute for the regular coffee of commerce. 

Egyptian Coflfee — Is prepared from the common 
Chick-pea roasted, ground and mixed with genuine 
coffee in equal parts, being more of an adulterant than 
a substitute. 

Mesquite Coflfee. — It has been recently claimed that 
a species of coffee may be produced from the " Mesquite 
plant" found growing in wild abundance in Texas, Ari- 
zona and New Mexico, but so far no positive results have 
been reported. 



SUBSTITUTES AND ADULTERANTS. 209 



Dandelion Coffee. — The root of the Dandelion, first 
dried, roasted and ground, is also extensively used as a 
substitute for coffee, and is claimed by many physicians 
to be much preferable to chicory for that purpose, its 
infusion, decoction and extract being frequently employed 
as a tonic and aperient, especially in disorders of the 
liver and digestive organs. 

Spent Coffee — Prepared from " exhausted " coffee 
grounds which are dried and re-atomized by the trans- 
forming hand of modern chemistry^ put up in shiny pack- 
ages under seductive titles, and from which the deluded 
and over-confiding consumer endeavors to extract a 
desired beverage. 

Mussen,da Coffee. — A patent has recently been 
granted in France, the object of which is to substitute 
the berry of the Mtissenda plant for the various sub- 
stances now used for mixing with ground coffees, by 
which the berries are roasted with the coffee in any 
desired proportions, usually from /^ to ^ Mussenda, or 
^ coffee to y^ Mussenda. During the roasting process 
a small quantity of Caramel is added to improve the 
flavor, the compound being then ground and put up in 
cans, possessing at least one good recommendation, 
that of not containing any injurious properties. 

Canada Peas — Which is the most extensive form 
of adulteration, are first roasted in the same manner as 
coffee, but requiring a much longer time and more 
care, as the shell of the pea does not assume a coffee- 
color until the inside is overdone, and must be judged 
by the inside appearance, being brittle and a little darker 
when broken than coffee, but when ground they are 
dry and dusty, on which account they make an excel- 
lent compound with chicory, keeping it from forrning 



SUBSTITUTES AND ADULTERANTS. 



into lumps and making it assume a uniform color. 
Wheat, rye or barley may be substituted or added to 
this compound without affecting it, the method of treat- 
ment being identical. There being but little aroma to 
protect and none to save, the virtue of this compound 
lies altogether in the healthy properties of the cereal 
used, not in the flavor of the liquid. 

Essence of Coffee — Is simply an article of manufac- 
ture, containing no coffee, but intended for use with 
coffee for the purpose of imparting color and as a clarify- 
ing agent. It may be prepared at will from any cereal 
before named, bread raspings or burnt cracker dust, but 
is chiefly composed of carbonized corn, that is, corn 
roasted to blackness. The material from which it may 
be prepared is first roasted, ground fine and spread out 
thinly over a large surface, and then covered with burnt 
sugar or molasses while boiling hot, the whole forming a 
large cake, which when thoroughly cooled is broken into 
pieces and reground in an iron mill until reduced to a 
dust, after which it is put up in packages or barrels for 
use in coffee. It is also used extensively as an adulter- 
ant in ground coffee, and when made from good stock it 
is not objectionable, possessing excellent coloring, sweet- 
ening and clarifying properties. 

Coffee-leaf Coffee. — A decoction made from the 
leaves of the coffee shrub has long been used in the 
Eastern Archipelago, and has more recently been intro- 
duced among the coolies of southern India, and a few 
years since attracted considerable notice, being recom- 
mended as a new article of import to become a cheap 
substitute for tea. There seems to be no doubt that 
coffee leaves contain the principle coffeine in sufficient 
abundance for the making of a valuable beverage, but 



SUBSTITUTES AND ADULTERANTS. 211 

the presence of an unpleasant senna-like odor militates 
greatly against its popularity as a regular drink, and there 
exists also the difficulty that of depriving the tree of- its 
foliage damages the crop of berries and injures the tree 
itself On berry-producing trees therefore only the 
leaves obtained in the ordinary pruning operations would 
be available, and these would seem to yield so small a 
supply as not to be worth the cost of collection, while 
growing the shrubs for the leaves alone would be a very 
questionable undertaking. Yet there appears to be no 
valid reason why in the event of the berry crop failing a 
portion at least of the leaves might not be gathered and 
prepared in the form of coffee if any means can be 
invented for removing the objectionable odor. 

Whey Coffee — Another very novel substitute for 
coffee is prepared of whey from milk, which is evaporated 
down in open vessels or vacuum pans until most of the 
water is driven off and a thick paste remains. During the 
process the whey is kept constantly stirred, the stirring 
being continued until the pasty mass becomes cold, when it 
is rolled into cakes and dried at a temperature of boiling 
water, after which it is broken up and moulded into 
pieces about the size and form of coffee beans. The 
next operation is that of roasting, which is more prefer- 
ably performed by first mixing them with an equal quan- 
tity of raw coffee, the roasting process thus turning the 
whey-paste beans into a rich brown color, which on cool- 
ing are ground with another percentage of coffee. The 
compound yields a pleasant and agreeable beverage and 
may find some use as a harmless if not really nutritious 
ingredient in the lower priced coffee preparations. 

In Brazil and other South American countries the fruit 
of the Wax palm is used extensively as a substitute for 



SUBSTITUTES AND ADULTERANTS. 



coffee, being very rich in caffeine and possessing nutri- 
tious properties, while recently a substitute for coffee has 
been introduced to England and the continent of Europe 
under the name of " Mochara," which is simply a prep- 
aration made from ripe figs, roasted and pulverized, which 
is sold at about half the price of coffee. Another illus- 
tration of the modern craze for replacing every genuine 
article by an inferior substitute is to be found in the 
announcement of a company to work a recent patent for 
making coffee out of dates. In New Zealand the berries 
of the Coprosnia have been proposed as a coffee substi- 
tute, while the seeds of the Cassia have been lately im- 
ported into England from the river Gambia and sold 
there under the name of " Negro Coffee." But although 
such substitutes and admixture are demanded, yet it 
appears to be impossible to replace coffee altogether, 
all the elaborate attempts made by the French chemists 
during the wars in the early part of this century being 
unsuccessful in providing any approximate substitute for 
coffee. 

Kola-nut Coffee, — The diminishing production of 
coffee in Java, Ceylon, and other countries of East 
Indies has given rise to the suggestion that the culti- 
vation of the Kola-nut as as substitute for coffee should 
be undertaken, which not only as a stimulant, but as an 
article of food, possesses the essential properties of coffee, 
and is even said to be richer in the active principle, 
caffeine. Heretofore this product has been raised chiefly 
for medicinal purposes only, but its acceptability as a 
stimulating and nutritious beverage is rapidly growing, 
possessing as it does a high value, because of its power 
of enabling men to sustain great effort as well as to 
endure long fasting. It is fast finding a place in com- 
merce in the same order as that held by coffee, the 



SUBSTITUTES AND ADULTERANTS. 213 

beverage being called at the present " Kola-nut Coffee," 
but the term " Kolatina," has recently been proposed as 
more appropriate for the decoction, and to which there 
can be no reasonable objection. The beverage prepared 
from the Kola nut resembles that made from coffee, and 
is both pleasant and agreeable, and for persons troubled 
with weak indigestion " Kolatina " is found to be better 
adapted than either tea or cocoa. This is the bean 
which Stanley speaks in several of his works on African 
exploration as possessing much greater sustaining power 
than either tea, coffee, or cocoa ; the natives, he states, 
carry these beans in their pockets and eat them during 
long marches. The beans are first ground and put up in 
packages, with directions for making the infusion, one 
teaspoonful being sufficient for a cup of Kolatina. A 
concentrated essence is also made from the beans, and an 
acerated drink called " Kola champagne," very agreeable 
to the taste and recommended by physicians. 

Chicory — The common root of the Endive or " Suc- 
cory " plant, as used along with coffee was originally a 
Dutch practice dating back to over a century ago, but 
for many years after the nature of Chicoried coffee was 
kept a profound secret by the Dutch dealers until 1801, 
when the secret was first disclosed. The fact that for 
over a hundred years it has been successfully used as a 
substitute for and recognized addition to coffee, while in 
the meantime innumerable other substances has been 
tried for the same purpose and abandoned indicates that 
it must be agreeable, if not beneficial, to many constitu- 
tions besides imparting to coffee additional color, body 
and pungency, and may, by acting as a sedative, tonic 
and diuretic, modify its stimulating and exciting effects, 
and is at least in very general, almost universal, use at the 



214 SUBSTITUTES AND ADULTERANTS. 



present time. It is extensively cultivated in Belgium, 
Holland, France, Germany and other European countries, 
being principally prepared from the old, stout and white 
roots of the plant, which after washing are sliced into 
small pieces, and kiln-dried, in which condition it is 
usually sold to the chicory roasters, by whom it is 
parched or burned, until it assumes a deep-brown color, 
after which it is ground, the fine dust being separated 
from the coarse and granulated parts. In its external 
characteristics it closely resembles ground coffee, but is 
entirely destitute of its pleasing and aromatic odor, 
neither does it possess any trace of the alkaloid — caffe- 
ine — which give their peculiar virtues to coffee, tea and 
other diet drinks. It occupies a peculiar position, how- 
ever, since very many coffee consumers deliberately 
prefer an admixture of chicory with coffee to the pure 
article alone, notwithstanding that it is entirely devoid of 
the essential oil for which coffee is so valued. Differing 
diametrically in their botanical nature and chemical 
composition as well as in their physiological properties 
and action. Again, coffee is the fruit of a tree, while 
chicory is the root of a herbaceous plant, and it is a 
well-established fact that of all parts of either vegetables 
or plants the fruit and seeds possess the most active and 
nutritious properties. This is no doubt due to their being 
freely exposed to the influence of light and air — agencies 
which invariably promote chemical changes in the plant 
itself and so effect the elaboration of those complex 
organic substances on which the activity of all plants 
depends. While on the other hand it is manifest that, as 
roots are concealed from these powerful agencies, they 
cannot be richly endowed with active properties, there 
being but few roots containing either alkaloid or volatile 
oil — the properties which give to coffee its unique virtues. 



SUBSTITUTES AND At)ULTER\NTg. 2 1^ 

The destinction therefore between the properties of the 
seeds and roots of plants in general is very important, 
and especially so in the case of coffee and chicory, the 
infusion of the latter being heavy, black, mawkish and 
entirely destitute of aroma; that of the former being 
hght, rich, fragrant and refreshing. Coffee containing 
three active principles : caffeine, volatile oil and 
tannin, chicory possessing no such analogous constitu- 
ents. Coffee exerting very marked and- highly important 
pysiological effects of a beneficial character in the human 
system, while there is not a single proof that chicory 
exerts any one of these effects, it being very questionable, 
in the contrary, whether the properties it does possess are 
not really injurious. None of these or analogous princi- 
ples are to be found in any of the substitutes or adulter- 
ants of coffee, so that the latter cannot possess a single 
one of the pecuHar and beneficial properties of coffee, being 
simply a deception on the stomach of the consumer. 

Chicory contains neither caffeine nor essential oil like 
coffee, and is neither exhilarating nor pleasant in taste, 
while on some persons it acts as an irritant and purgative. 
Some so-called coffees contain large quantities of it, even 
to the extent of 95 per cent, which it would be more 
correct to call such a mixture " adulterated chicory," 
rather than coffee, which term it seems entitled to only 
as a matter of courtesy, chicory being in its turn 
also subject to adulteration in many forms, two very 
common adulterants being beet-root and mangel-wurzel. 
As to the nutrition possessed by chicory, it contains 
only about one-half the nitrogenous substances of coffee 
and even that quantity in no way benefits the consumer, 
as these substances are insoluble in water and are wasted 
in the infusion. It has been proved also that even the 
chicory itself is extensively adulterated, as all of the 



21 6 SUBSTITUTES AND ADULTEfeANTS. 

substances found iii adulterated coffee have also been dis- 
covered in ground chicory. Viewed under a magnifying 
glass the component fibres and elementary structures of 
the different substances used in the adulteration of coffee 
present peculiarities and characteristics that enables the 
experienced observer to identify without difficulty the par- 
ticular substitute or adulterant employed. The principal 
adulterant, chicory, being readily distinguished by the 
size, form, and ready separation of the component cells of 
the nut, as well as by the presence of an abundance of 
spiral vessels of a dotted form. Whole roasted beans, 
peas and cereals may be best detected by the respective 
size, form, texture and other characteristics of the 
starchy granule, of which such substances are chiefly 
composed. 

In minute structure true coffee is so distinct from all 
other vegetable substances that it is readily recognizable by 
means of the microscope, and as the roasting process 
does not destroy its distinguishing peculiarities, micro- 
scopic examination forms the readiest method of deter- 
mining the genuineness of any suspected sample. The 
true coffee bean consists of an assemblage of vesicles or 
cells, angular in form, which adhere so firmly together 
that they break up into pieces rather than separate into 
distinct and perfect cells. And, again, by microscopical, 
physical and chemical tests the purity of coffee can be 
still further determined with perfect certainty. The mix- 
ture of chicory with coffee is best detected by the aid of 
the microscope, the structure of both which they retain 
after torrefaction being very characteristic and distinct. 
The granules of coffee remain hard and angular when 
steeped in water, to which they communicate but little 
color, while chicory on the other hand by swelling up 
and softening imparts a deep brown color to the water. 



* StJBSTITUTES AND ADtTLfERANTS. 217 

the specific gravity of chicory being also much hghter 
than that of coffee. 

All of the pseudo patent or proprietory ground coffees, 
put up in bulk or packages, and recommended to the 
consumer by high-sounding, seductive names and attrac- 
tive labels, which are annually palmed off in such vast 
quantities, consist of nothing more than a combination 
of these adulterants with genuine coffee. So much so 
that it may be safely said that wherever grinding is done 
it may be safely set down that more or less adulteration 
is practised, the ground coffee being put up in packages 
or in bulk form. The average basis for the compound 
being composed of the following proportions to every 
i,ooo pounds: chicory, loo; rye, 200; peas, 400 ; coffee, 
200, and other substances 100 pounds. 

According to some English chemists, coffee is adul- 
terated in that country, outside of chicory, with such 
substances as roasted peas, beans, carrots, turnips, pars- 
nips, potatoes, acorns, beets, lupins and even fragments 
of the baked livers of oxen and horses. To such an 
extent is the practice carried there, that it is next to im- 
possible to procure a pound of pure coffee there at almost 
any price. The evil also flourishes to a great extent in 
this country, but with the exception that nothing worse 
than roasted rye, peas, beans and cereal grains are chiefly 
used for its adulteration. With regard to the propriety of 
selling chicory with coffee, it may be stated that while it 
certainly is not right to sell a mixture of coffee with chicory 
under the name of pure coffee, and unreasonable to compel 
the manufacturer or vender to specify approximately 
the proportion of chicory contained in the mixture, 
this latter is especially desirable, inasmuch as chicory 
is far cheaper than coffee, and it is, therefore, necessary 
to protect the public against having chicory palmed off 



2l8 SU13:^TITUTES AND ADULTERANTS. 

on it for pure coffee. According to the best authorities, 
coffee, when pure, is a most valuable ingredient of our 
food, owing to its agreeable flavor, pleasing odor and 
refreshing and gently stimulating properties, which, if 
not absolutely necessary, is at least a most desirable 
constituent of our daily dietary, and any one that 
deprives it of its true qualities by adulteration or substi- 
tution inflicts an injury more or less grave on the public 
health, because the adulterants are claimed not to be 
poisonous — that is, directly — but only indirectly inju- 
rious. The offense is thought little of, and never pun- 
ished in this country, with the result that the nefarious 
practice is rather encouraged than repressed. So that, 
in considering the many evils of coffee adulteration, 
we must not overlook the fact that coffee is not 
only a beverage, but also a drug, antagonistic in 
action to the alkaloid moj'phia, as well as to other 
alkaloids of like nature, so that in cases of poison- 
ing its adulteration may lead to the failure of med- 
ical treatment, even to the extent of the loss of life. 

The operation of roasting also tends to make coffee 
soluble in boiling water, as when Raw coffee is perfectly 
exhausted by means of boiling water it yields up 25 per 
cent, which passes into solution, while Roasted coffee, on 
the other hand, when completely exhausted by means of 
boiling water, yields up 39 per cent, of soluble matter. 
These figures appear rather high, as in actually using 
coffee as a beverage we are not in the habit of making 
anything like a complete extraction, only some 10 to 12 
per cent, of the coffee passing into the liquid. From these 
the facts it will be perceived that the chemical character of 
coffee provide fairly satisfactory criteria for the recognition 
of many species of adulteration, the absence of starch alone 
in genuine coffee offering in itself a character which enables 



SUBSTITUTES AND ADULTERANTS. 219 

the analyst to at once deal with the whole class of pos- 
sible adulterants, including many species of grain, while 
the absence of more than traces of sugar in Roasted 
coffee can likewise be turned to excellent account inas- 
much as Chicory contains no starch, but is highly sac- 
charine even after roasting, the percentage of sugar in 
Roasted coffee ranging from o. o. to i. i, while in Roasted 
chicory the quantity of sugar ranges from 12 to 18 per 
cent. The proof of this character is best made by the 
aid of the copper-reduction test, for which purpose a 
standard solution of copper is required, which may be 
prepared by dissolving 34.65 grams of crystalized sul- 
phate of copper in 200 C. C. of water and adding to it 
173 grams of double tartrate of potash and soda, with 
400 C. C. of a solution of caustic soda, the whole being 
subsequently diluted with water so as to occupy a litre. 
The standard solution of copper made in this manner is 
of such a strength that 10 C. C. are reduced by .050 
grams of grape sugar, the best method of using this 
solution being to take a known volume of it, say 10 C. 
C. accurately measured out, and dilute it with three or 
four times its volumeofboihng water and then dropping 
into the boiling copper solution, which is to be added, 
until the point is, just reached when the copper solution 
is exhausted, and as the reduction of the copper-salt to 
the state of red sub-oxide of copper progresses, the 
precipitate will accumulate, and at the same time the blue 
color will fade from the solution. The last delicate read- 
ing is finally effected by half of the reduction between 
the ferro-cyanide of potassium and copper solutions, for 
which purpose a little of the liquid is filtered, acidified 
slightly with acetic acid and tested with a drop of the 
solution of the ferro-cyanide of potassium. In this tri- 
turate, as in all like cases, a rough and rapid estimation 



220 SUBSTITUTES AND ADULTERANTS. 



is first made, and then a second operation when the 
quantity is approximately known to make a dehcate and 
careful reading of the exact point. Thus if lOO parts of 
coffee when infused yield sensibly more than i per cent. 
of sugar, then the presence of chicory or other adulter- 
ant may be strongly suspected and a rough calculation of 
the quantity made. The fact that coffee extract is devoid 
or almost devoid of sugar, while many of the other 
natural products yield saccharine extracts, makes itself 
manifest in many ways, and the specific gravity also of 
equal quantities of an infusion of coffee being very much 
lower than the specific gravity of an infusion of chicory 
and the other principal substances used in the adultera- 
tion of ground coffee. Chicory also possessing greater 
coloring power than coffee, for which reason this charac- 
ter may be rendered available in the testing of coffee, as 
not only does chicory color water more deeply than 
coffee, but it colors it with greater rapidity, the oil con- 
tained in the coffee hindering the solution of the coloring 
matter by the water, whereas chicory, which contains no 
oil, imparts its coloring matter to water with great readi- 
ness. All of which tends to render the color-test, when 
properly applied, the easiest and most available for the 
detection of chicory or other substances in coffee. 

What is known as the "Ash test," is as follows: Pure 
coffee when incinerated or burned, yields about 4 per 
cent, of ash on an average, while the ash of chicory and 
other adulterants used in coffee amounts to between 5 
and 6 per cent, of the residue, the ratio of soluble to 
insoluble ash being inverted when dissolved in water 
thus: — 

Ash of Coffee. Ash of Chicory. 

Soluble, .... 3.24 Soluble, .... 1.74 

Insoluble, . . . 0.76 ' Insoluble, . . . 3.52 



SUBSTITUTES AND ADULTERANTS. 2 21 

From this analysis it will be observed that the average 
ash of coffee when incinerated is about 4 per cent., 3.24 
of which is soluble in water, and 0.76 insoluble, more 
than half ot the entire ash consisting of potash in com- 
bination with carbonic and phosphoric acids. Magnesia 
amounting to about 8 and lime to about 4 per cent, of 
the whole, while it is claimed that soda and silica are 
entirely absent from coffee ash, great stress being laid on 
this circumstance. The ash of chicory, on the other 
hand, which is the main adulterant of coffee, amounts to 
5.06 when incinerated, 1.74 per cent, of which only is 
soluble in water, and 3.32 insoluble, being almost an 
inversion of figures and from which it may be easily 
understood why the examination of the ash alone would 
suffice to distinguish between coffee and chicory, and 
from which it may readily be determined, an examina- 
tion of the ash test alone sufficing to distinguish pure 
coffee from the adulterated compounds. 

Another unerring test, known as the " Color test," is to 
prepare a saturated .solution of common salt and mix a 
small quantity of the coffee to be tested with ten times its 
weight of the solution in a test-tube at least three quarters 
of an inch in diameter, shaking it repeatedly so that the 
coffee may be thoroughly wetted, and then allow the tube 
to stand for half an hour. Next, closely observe the color 
of the liquid and the quantity of coffee floating on the sur- 
face as well as the amount deposited in the tube. If the color 
be a very pale amber and almost all of the coffee floats 
on top, the sample may be assumed to be pure, but if of 
a decidedly dark-yellow or brownish hue, it clearly indi- 
cates the admixture of chicory or some similar adulter- 
ant, in which case there is also a larger deposit for the 
reasons already stated. This deposit increases and the 
Qolor of the brine grows darker in proportion to the 



SUBSTITUTES AND ADULTERANTS. 



extent of the impurity in the coffee, as with the addition 
of only 30 per cent, of chicory the brown color is very 
marked, so that with a still larger percentage of the 
adulterant it becomes correspondingly darker. 



OHA^r»^E>B^ \riii. 



l5i:<-E>]Vi>li?«:o A.]?«:i> i»ieE>l*i!|Liei]VO. 



BY the combination of different varieties of coffee 
much better results are sometimes obtainable 
than when one variety is used alone, but in the 
mixing or blending of two or more kinds together, 
several points have to be studied, such as the age, grade, 
body, flavor, appearance, and affinity of the coffees to be 
combined. The public taste for certain flavored coffees, 
like that of tea, being an acquired one, it behooves the 
dealer to first study and learn the taste of his customers 
before catering to it. 

The successful blending of coffees may be easily 
accomplished if only a fair knowledge of the merits and 
general character of the coffees be possessed by the 
dealer ; but tastes differ so widely that it is next to im- 
possible to give any fixed formulas for any specific com- 
binations. For this reason the following blends are only 
given for the purpose of conveying some idea as to what 
coffees assimilate best in combination and also ascertain 
what body, strength and flavor is required by the cus- 
tomer or customers before preparing the combination ; 
but a taste for any fairly good blend of coffees may be 
cultivated in the customer with time. And as no 
definite formulas can be given for combining two or 
more varieties of coffee, the dealer must study the taste 
and requirements of his trade, noting its peculiarities and 



224 BLENDING AND PREPARING. 

experimenting with it until he has discovered a com- 
bination that will suit or please a majority of his cus- 
tomers which, having once found, he should adhere to 
strictly, by being always careful to select, as nearly as 
possible, the same grades of coffee, and keeping them up 
to the same high and uniform standard. 

Though not generally admitted, the testing of coffee 
is much more difficult and requires more experience 
than that of tea, inasmuch as the sample of tea is all 
ready to have the water applied to it, while the sample 
of coffee is presented in the raw or natural state and 
must not only be roasted properly and ground before 
being tested, but must also be roasted as precisely as the 
other samples with which it is to be compared, in order 
to determine its exact value. To smell or taste cor- 
rectly requires a knowledge of all the properties and 
characteristics of the article under consideration, as 
these senses convey to the mind their impressions, so 
that if the mind can analyze the cause and effect, the 
senses of smell and taste act in consonance with the sense 
of reason. It is thus obvious that to be an expert 
judge of either tea or coffee requires a thorough knowl- 
edge of the different varieties and grades of both, and 
what the most desirable qualities of each are. It is 
also further necessary that the dealer should be well 
aware of what characteristics and blending of flavors 
his customers prefer. Having carefully selected, tested, 
and purchased his coffee, the next important thing 
is to so roast or have it roasted as to best develop the 
drinking qualities, which, as stated before, is a more 
important and essential process than the hulling and 
curing of it, though frequently underestimated by the 
average dealer, as many otherwise good coffees are injured 
irreparably by improper roasting. 



ROASTED COFFEE BLENDS. 225 

Owing to the wide difference in the age, weight and 
texture of coffees they should never be blended in the 
raw or natural state, as old and dry coffees require a 
shorter time to roast than new and moist ones, the same 
rule applying to what are known in trade as " mild" and 
" strong" coffees, as one will be but half roasted or 
roasted only when the former is roasted or burned, thus 
imparting to the combination a raw, uncooked or burned 
flavor, as the case may be. The best way is to roast or 
have roasted the coffee intended for the blend in different 
cylinders, then mix and cover them up tightly immedi- 
ately after roasting, in order that the differing characters 
and flavors may exchange and assimilate freely while the 
pores are still open to receive them. 

ieOA.®T*EjI> OOI^I^BJEJ ]BX^E;iVI3«S. 

No. 1. — (Low-priced). May be made from a fair Rio 
and Santos, low-grade Maracaibo or other mild sort, in 
the proportions of half and half, or, when three or more 
varieties are used, in equal quantities. 

No. 2. — (Medium). Is composed of equal quantities 
of a large white-bean Santos and Cucuta Maracaibo or 
other standard mild growth, the whole being strength- 
ened by the addition of one part choice Rio, if con- 
sidered too weak in body. 

No. 3. — (Choice). When a. really rich, smooth, 
mellow beverage is desired a combination, composed of 
one-third Arabian Mocha and two-thirds Preanger Java 
will yield the desired results. While a liquor equally 
as good, if not more popular, may be obtained from 
equal parts of Cucuta or Merida, Maracaibo, Aden, 
Mocha and Preanger Java, particularly when fresh roasted. 



2 26 GROUND COFFEE BLENDS. 

For a good coffee the most common practice is to blend 
a Padang Java and a Cucuta Maracaibo, or large, 
yellow, old-bean Santos in the proportions of 40 pounds 
of the former to 60 of either, or both the two latter, 
the combination answering well for a straight coffee, and 
for which it may be safely sold. In fact, one of the most 
popular so-called finest Javas in the market to-day is 
composed of these three varieties, the addition of the 
Santos improving the combination, as it lends to it the 
essential quality which is lacking. 

Gireoxjr«r> cJOi^i^BEj :^rvEjivi3®. 

In ground coffees the appended specimen blends are 
given to illustrate how they are mixed, rather than as 
laying down any fixed formulas, and are recommended 
as being at least non-injurious, if not positively whole- 
some. 

No. 1. — Composed of 20 pounds roasted rye, 20 pounds 
chicory and 20 pounds ground coffee makes a fairly drink- 
able compound, when a cheap coffee is required. 

No. 2. — A good medium grade may be prepared of 10 
pounds rye, 20 pounds chicory and 20 pounds coffee. 
These proportions may be altered at pleasure, but care 
must be taken to at all times have th^ rye in excess of 
the chicory and to thoroughly mix and grind the com- 
ponent parts together. The dry dust of the rye quickly 
absorbs the moisture of the chicory and will also prevent 
the mill from becoming clogged in grinding. 

No. 3. — Better still in the proportions of 15 pounds 
rye, 10 pounds chicory and 10 pounds good, mild coffee, 
the component parts of which may be still further varied 
to suit the price and taste of the customer and to which 
may be added any of the other ingredients with which 



PREPARING FOR USE. 227 

coffees are mixed, except corn or beans, but it must be 
borne in mind that only the best grade of coffee must be 
used in the blend, as what may otherwise be a good com- 
bination may be utterly spoiled by the introduction of a 
tainted, stained, damaged or hidey coffee. 

But the best and safest of all substances for mixing or 
blending with coffee with the object of reducing its cost 
is chicory and rye, containing as they do a large percent- 
age of saccharine, which in the process of roasting becomes 
carameled, thus imparting to the compound the flavor of 
coffee to a much greater extent than any other substitute 
known and for which reason it lends itself to the purpose 
more readily than any other vegetable substance. Again, 
it is not injurious to health, while at the same time it 
gives up its extractive matter easily, thus improving the 
extract yielded by poor coffee and imparting a dark color 
to the decoction such as can only be produced by three 
times the weight of pure coffee. It has one great defect, 
however, that of easily absorbing moisture, becoming 
hard and lumpy on exposure to the atmosphere, more 
particularly when ground fine. 

The methods of preparing for the table are almost as 
numerous as the countries in which it is grown, and as 
much of the beneficial influence which it undoubtedly 
exerts depends in a great measure on its proper prepara- 
tion. This question has given rise to such a maze of 
psuedo chemical subtleties and mechanical devices that it 
is difficult to arrive at any fundamental common-sense 
rule for its most perfect production in the cup. The two 
principal objects to be sought for in the proper prepara- 
tion of coffee as a beverage are : ( i ) To obtain the greatest 
amount of strength and aroma, without extracting any 



228 PREPARING FOR USE. 



of its astringent properties, and (2) to produce a rich, 
transparent, nut-brown liquor, free from all cloudiness and 
grounds. The first requisite in securing these results is 
that the article be purchased pure diwd fresh roasted in the 
bean and ground personally a short time previous to pre- 
paring for the table, for if roasted too long prior to its 
use the beans lose much of their strength and aroma, 
becoming tough and difficult to grind. This latter defect, 
however, may be remedied in part by reheating in a pan 
or oven for some minutes previous to being ground and 
infused. 

The usual methods of preparing coffee for use as a 
beverage are: (i) By Infusion or drawing; (2) By 
Decoction or boiling, and (3) By Filtration or distillation. 

Infusion — or "drawing" — is accomplished by first 
making the water boil and then putting in the ground 
coffee, the vessel being immediately removed off the fire 
and allowed to stand quietly, in the same manner as tea, 
on the stove or range for about ten minutes, in order to 
more fully extract its properties. The coffee is ready for 
use by this method when the powder swimming on the 
surface sinks to the bottom on slightly stirring it. This 
process yields a very aromatic beverage, but one contain- 
ing very little of the extract or stimulating properties. 

Decoction — or " boiling " — is the custom in the East, 
and generally yields an excellent coffee. The ground 
coffee is put in the vessel with cold water and placed on 
the fire, where it is allowed to boil for a few seconds, 
care being taken not to allow it to overboil. If boiled 
too long by this method the aromatic properties are 
volatilized, and while the coffee will be rich in extract it 
will be poor in aroma. 



PREPARING FOR USE. 229 

Filtration — or " distilling". — By this process the cof- 
fee is prepared in a " percolator," in which the ground 
coffee is compressed between two metallic diaphragms, 
so arranged as to permit the water to filter through it 
slowly. This method often, but not always, yields a cup 
of good coffee, as when the pouring of the boiling water 
over the ground coffee is done slowly the drops in pass- 
ing come in contact with too much air, the oxygen of 
which makes a change in the aromatic particles, often 
destroying them entirely. The extraction also is incom- 
plete, for, instead of 20 per cent, the water by this pro- 
cess dissolves only from 10 to 15 per cent., the balance 
being lost by evaporation, while by the other methods 
more than half the valuable parts of the coffee remain 
in the grounds and is entirely lost. 

It is contended by many experts and connoisseurs that 
to obtain the full aroma of coffee without extracting its 
astringent properties, it must in all cases be prepared as 
an infusion with boiling water, that is, " drawn " in the 
same manner as tea, or simply allowed to reach the boil- 
ing point after infusion, but no more. While others, 
among whom is Baron Liebig, maintain that by simple 
infusion alone much of the valuable soluble principle in 
the coffee remains unextracted, being eventually thrown 
out with the grounds. To avoid this unnecessary waste, 
it is suggested that the grounds of the coffee once used by 
infusion should be preserved, boiled and the liquor result- 
ing therefi'om be used for infusing a fresh supply. By 
this method it is claimed that the substantial properties 
of the previously infused coffee, and the aroma of the 
new are obtained together in the fresh infusion. In many 
French households the coffee grounds are utilized by dis- 
tillation for economy's sake, hot water being poured over 
them, which, after passing through, is preserved in a bottle 



^30 PREPARING FOR USE. 

and used as an extract. In fact, this is claimed to be the 
method adopted in making the finest French coffee. 

The best method under these circumstances is a com- 
bination of the second and third, in which the usual 
quantities of both coffee and water are to be retained, 
a tin measure containing half an ounce of roasted 
coffee beans being generally suiTficient for two small 
cups (or one large breakfast cup) of coffee of moderate 
strength, or four ounces for eight small cups or four 
large ones. With three-quarters of the coffee to be pre- 
pared after being ground, the water is made to boil in 
ten or fifteen minutes, after which the other quarter is 
put in, and the vessel immediately withdrawn from the 
fire, tightly covered over and allowed to stand for five or 
six minutes. In order that the powder on the surface 
may fall to the bottom more readily, it is meantime 
stirred round, and after the deposit takes place the coffee 
may be poured off, being then ready for use. But in 
order to separate the grounds more completely, the 
coffee may be passed through a clean muslin cloth, but 
generally this operation is not necessary, being frequently 
prejudical to the pure flavor of the beverage. By this 
process the first boiling gives the strength, the second 
adding to the flavor without extracting its astringent 
properties, it does not, however, dissolve more than 
one-fourth of the aromatic substances contained in the 
roasted coffee. The beverage, when ready for use by this 
process, ought to be of a rich brownish-black color, 
semi-transparent, somewhat resembling chocolate 
thinned with water. 

Coffee may be" prepared in any kind of vessel, tin cup, 
iron pot, earthen pitcher or regular coffee-pot, but the 
utensil, whatever it may be, must be thoroughly clean 
before using. When prepared in a tin cup or iron pot 



PREPARING FOR USE. ^3! 

first heat the ground coffee in the vessel and pour on boil- 
ing water or milk when the coffee is sufficiently heated, 
and stir with a spoon for one minute, then allow to stand 
by the fire where it will keep hot, without boiling, for 
another minute and stir again and then let stand to settle 
for two minutes, after which it is ready for use, care being 
taken when pouring out not to disturb the grounds. 
But, if a pitcher be used it, must be first heated with boil- 
ing water and allowed to stand in a warm place to infuse 
for at least ten minutes before serving. 

There are so many different varieties of coffee and such 
a wide dissimilarity of tastes, that it is almost next to 
impossible to suggest the special kind of coffee to select 
for use, even for the average consumer, the same difficulty 
also applying to what constitutes the requisite quantity. 
Many old-time coffee-drinkers prefer a strong, dark, or, 
as they term it, " an old-fashioned Rio." Others like a 
good Maracaibo, or other fine, mild grade, such as Cey- 
lon, Jamaica and Guatemala ; in fact, these are the most 
popular grades and the choice of the majority of con- 
sumers, not only on account of their intrinsic merits, 
but also on account of price. For an exceedingly fine 
coffee, however, the best results are obtained from a 
combination of true Java and genuine Mocha, mixed in 
the proportions of two-thirds of the former to one-third 
of the latter, //rj>V^ roasted, fresh ground and fresh made ; 
while, with regard to quantity, one, two and three table- 
spoonfuls to each pint of water is recommended, accord- 
ing to the number to be served and the strength required. 

The degree of strength is altogether a matter of taste, 
two ounces, or four heaping tablespoonfuls, of pure, 
ground coffee, made with absolutely boiling water, will 
yield a full quart of average strength, making a pleasant 
and well-flavored breakfast coffee. But for four persons 



232 PREPARING FOR USE. 



a tea-cup of finely-ground coffee — the finer, the better — 
will be required, to be served as soon as made, as the 
infusion rapidly deteriorates by standing too long. 

* t- * * * ^ 

In Ethiopia and Southeastern Africa, where its virtues 
were first discovered and where it has been in use for 
centuries prior to its introduction to civilization, it is 
used in a so/id form, being first roasted, crushed and 
mixed with fat or grease, rolled into balls and eaten. 
The natives claiming that one of these balls will support 
them for an entire day, and preferring it so prepared to a 
meal of bread or meat. 

* ;}; :)c :); :f: H= 

While the Arabs, to whom the civilized world is 
indebted not only for the first knowledge of the plant and 
its product, but also for the first knowledge of preparing 
it in liquid form, prepare it for use in a porous earthen- 
ware pitcher first set in hot ashes until all moisture is 
evaporated and the vessel is well heated, after which 
freshly roasted and pounded coffee is put in and a little 
salt added, both being heated thoroughly. Boiling 
water is then poured on, the vessel covered and allowed 
to rest in the hot ashes until it settles before serving. A 
decoction known as Kishre is also made there from the 
dried pulp of the berries, which is prepared by bruising 
or pounding the raw pulp with stones and putting it in 
boiling water, contained in an earthen pan placed over a 
slow fire. Ground cardamons and a little cinnamon or 
ginger is next added to the decoction, after which it is 
allowed to simmer for half an hour before using. 

In Turkey, where it is regarded as the national bever- 
age, it is prepared by first grinding the roasted beans 
exceedingly fine, almost as fine as flour, and put in a pot 



PREPARING FOR USE. 233 



in which cold water is poured and placed on the fire until 
it heats up to almost the boiling point and then served 
without the addition of either milk or sugar. But when 
only a single cup of coffee is wanted, the requisite quan- 
tity is measured into a small, long-handled brass coffee 
pot, made expressly to hold one or two cups, as the 
case may be, and water enough poured on to fill the 
vessel, which is set on live coals until it heats up to, but 
not beyond, the boiling point and then served in a tiny 
cup without straining or otherwise settling the grounds. 

* H< 5i= ^ * * 

While in Egypt, which is also proverbial for the excel- 
lence of its coffee, it is prepared by first grinding the 
beans fine, as in Turkey, and adding an equal quantity of 
sugar to it, pouring on boiling water, and placing the 
vessel over the fire until it is thoroughly boiled, but 
removing and allowing it to cool occasionally between 
times until it becomes black and rather thick, in which 
state it is served. Coffee thus prepared will be found 
very rich and strong, too much so for the average taste, but 
dark, frothy-tipped, and, taken altogether, a delicious 
beverage. 

:): ;i< 5|s ^ sjt * 

In Java, Sumatra and other Eastern coffee-growing 
countries the natives make a beverage from the leaves of 
the coffee plant, the leaves containing a large percentage of 
the active principle — caffeine. They first roast and cure 
the leaves after the manner of tea, and prepare them by 
infusion the same as tea, the natives preferring the liquor 
from the leaves to that produced from the roasted beans. 

^ ^ * ^ :i; ^ 

The Dutch settlers in South Africa not only use coffee 
at all meals but at all times, the coffee-pot being always 
on the fire ready for any visitors and friends who may call. 



234 PREPARING FOR USE. 



In preparing it they use two kettles, boiling the water in 
one and pouring it on the coffee which has been pre- 
viously placed in the other ; the water is then poured 
back and forth several times, a little cold water being 
finally added to settle the grounds just before serving. 

:^ ^ ^ ^ :^ iji 

In Mexico the coffee is roasted, ground and prepared 
at the same time; the beans are roasted as required and 
pounded fine in a bag or coarse cloth, and immediately 
transferred to the pot, boiling water is then poured on 
and milk added to it, after which it is allowed to simmer 
or boil slowly for about three minutes. But in some 
instances the milk is added as served, a third of a cup of 
coffee, or less, and the balance in hot milk being the 
customary proportions. 

;)< ^ ^ ^ :)< ^. 

In Cuba, where the most delicious coffee obtainable 
anywhere is to be found, the beverage is prepared by 
first half filling a coarse flannel bag with finely pulverized 
roasted coffee and suspending it from a nail or hook over 
the pot or other vessel. Cold water is next poured on 
the bag at intervals until the entire mass is well saturated, 
when the first drippings which hav^e fallen into the re- 
ceptacle are poured again over the bag until the liquid 
becomes almost thick and very black. One teaspoonful 
of this novel extracted liquid placed in a cup of boiling 
milk will yield a draught of coffee that is simply delicious- 
ness itself — a nectar fit for the gods. In Cuba this flannel 
bag hangs day and night on the wall, the process of 
pouring on the cold water and allowing it to drip being 
almost ceaseless in its operation, all classes, ages and 
conditions offering and drinking coffee there as freely as 
the Chinese do tea or as we do water. 



PREPARING FOR USE. 235 

Coffee constitutes the almost exclusive or " national 
beverage " of the people of Brazil, particularly in the 
regions where it is most grown. It is made there by first 
roasting, as in this country, in small roasters, but more fre- 
quently in iron pans, very high and dark, and is prepared 
for use by grinding or pulverizing the beans very fine, 
almost as fine as flour, and putting it in a muslin or woolen 
bag placed in a pot or other vessel upon which boiling 
water is poured, and allowed to infuse for about fifteen 
minutes. The entire strength is thus extracted, the 
Brazilians almost universally preferring their coffee strong 
and "black," that is, without milk, for which reason 
larger quantities are also used. 

Many connoisseurs maintain that the roasting of coffee 
is best done at home, as no doubt it is, all risk of adul- 
teration and stale coffee being avoided by this method. 

So to avoid all risks the consumer should purchase the 
coffee in a whole state and grind it personally; but any 
suspected sample of ground coffee may be tested by the 
following simple and practical experiments: (i).'Note 
whether the ground coffee hardens or "cakes" when 
pressed between the fingers, if so, the coffee is evi- 
dently adulterated, most probably with chicory ; (2). 
Place a small sample of the suspected coffee on top of 
water in a wineglass, and if part floats and part sinks it 
is undoubtedly adulterated either with chicory, roasted 
cereals or other analogous substances ; (3). If the cold 
water in which a sample of the ground coffee has been 
placed becomes deeply colored it is an evidence of the 
presence of some roasted vegetable substance ; (4), But 
to more definitely detect the presence of chicory or other 
foreign substances in ground coffee, put a teaspoonful of 
the suspected sample on the surface of a glass of cold 
water. If it floats for some time, scarcely coloring the 



236 PREPARING FOR USE. 



water, it is piire coffee, but if part sinks and imparts a 
reddish-brown tint to the water as it falls to the bottom 
of the glass, it is adulterated with either chicory, rye, 
peas or other analogous matter. Or again, place a spoon- 
ful of the coffee in a white bottle of cold water and shake 
well for a i^w moments, and if the sample is pure it will 
rise to the top, scarcely coloring the water, but if adul- 
terated it will sink and discolor the fluid f(jr the following 
reason : The pure coffee being enveloped in an oily sub- 
stance prevents the grounds from absorbing the water, 
while the adulterant being devoid of this feature quickly 
absorbs the water, and thus becoming heavy sinks and 
discolors the fluid to a greater or less extent according 
to the proportion used ; (5). Spread out on a piece of 
glass or other smooth surface a little ground coffee and 
moisten it with a few drops of water, and pick out by 
means of a needle the small particles. If these particles 
are of a soft consistence the coffee is undoubtedly adul- 
terated, as the particles of the coffee-seed or bean are 
hard and resisting in nature and do not become soft or 
pliable even after prolonged immersion in water. These 
simple methods will usually suffice to detect the ordinary 
forms of adulteration, but to determine the character and 
extent of the adulteration science and chemistry must be 
resorted to, for which purpose the use of a microscope 
will prove the most reliable and powerful auxiliary as a 
means of detection. The appended formulas are given 
as showing the different methods by which coffee is or 
may be prepared to suit the varying tastes of different 
consumers, which after testing, one may be selected for 
permanent adoption. 

1. Put the requisite quantity of finely-ground coffee 
in a granitized vessel and pour on sufficient cold water to 
just cover it and allow to stand over night in a moderately 



PREPARING FOR USE. 237 

warm position. Put it in the pot next morning, pour in 
absolutely boiling water and allow to heat to the boiling 
point and set back from the fire to prevent ebullition. 
By this method the full strength of the coffee will be 
obtained and the delicate aroma preserved without the 
extraction of its bitter and astringent properties. 

2. To prepare coffee by filtration without the aid of 
an urn or French coffee-pot. Put finely-ground coffee 
in a thin muslin bag and place in an ordinary utensil, 
first heating the vessel thoroughly and pour on briskly 
boiling water slowly around the bag, so as to permit it to 
absorb and saturate the coffee effectually and extract its 
full strength, after which allow it to stand and settle 
without boiling. 

3. Another excellent method, known as the " Cold- 
water process," is to mix the finely-ground coffee with 
the white of an e^g and sufficient cold water to just 
cover the mass, stirring it well meantime ; next, pour in 
about one-third of cold water required for the infusion 
and set the vessel on the range where it will heat gradu- 
ally to the boihng point; just as soon as it approaches 
the boiling point add another third of cold water and 
repeat until it again reaches the boiling point, then pour 
on the balance of cold water and allow it to come to the 
boiling point a^ain. After which remove and let stand 
where it will simmer for a few minutes and settle, which 
may be hastened by the addition of a little more cold 
water ; but if iri a hurry, boiling water may be used instead 
of cold by this method also, but the cold water extracts 
more fully the active and refreshing principles of the 
coffee without its deleterious properties making a stronger 
and richer infusion than the boiling water, as more of the 
strength and aroma is carried off in the vapor arising 
from the use of the latter. 



238 PREPARING FOR USE. 



4. A quick, convenient and economical method for 
producing a cup of good coffee is to first heat some 
freshly-roasted and finely-ground coffee — an ounce to 
each quart of water — in a pan over a brisk fire and fill a 
muslin bag with it, then so arrange as to suspend it mid- 
way in the pot, and pour on absolutely boiling water 
slowly, so as to allow it to trickle through the bag. 
After which allow it to stand for about ten minutes 
where it will keep hot without boiling, and serve with milk 
and sugar. But the simplest, most rapid and effective 
method is to place about two ounces of ground coffee in a 
stew or saucepan, and set it on a bright fire, stirring the 
coffee meantime with a spoon until quite hot, and then 
pouring over it a pint of briskly boiling water, covering 
it over closely for five minutes and passing it through a 
thin muslin cloth, warming the liquid again before 
serving. 

6. For the " ideal cup of coffee," take one part genuine 
Arabian Mocha and two parts finest Java ; roast each 
separately and blend well together, and grind fine imme- 
diately before preparing. Fill an ordinary tea-cup two- 
thirds full of the coffee, with one raw egg and shell. 

Place the whole in a strainer or percolator and pour on 
one quart of briskly boiling water, then let stand for 
about ten minutes where it will keep liQt without boil- 
ing, and serve with cream and sugar to suit, or, better 
still, with hot milk. But should a vessel without a 
strainer or percolator be used let the infusion boil up 
once, and pour in a cup of cold water, after which let it 
stand for at least five minutes to thoroughly settle, and 
you have a beverage brown, creamy, rich, fragrant and 
delicious. 

A most convenient, simple and inexpensive method of 
roasting coffee by families, travelers or others desiring to 



PREPARING FOR USE. 239 



roast their own coffee is to put the requisite quantity — 
usually about a quarter of a pound — in a thin glass flask 
or bottle placed over a charcoal fire and shaking it well 
during the process until completed. The non-conducting 
power gives this material an advantage over the metal, 
the coffee being less liable to burn in it and the coffee 
can be better observed and regulated during the progress 
of the process. But a simple iron pan may also be used 
effectively for the purpose, if care be taken to keep the 
coffee constantly agitated with a wooden knife or spoon, 
as a single burnt bean will impair the aroma, and stopping 
the operation as soon as the beans begin to crackle and 
assume a light-brown color. Before grinding put the roasted 
beans in an iron pan or plate and place on the range to heat 
until the aroma developed m the coffee by the roasting 
operation perfumes the room, after which grind in an 
ordinary mill and prepare according to any of the fore- 
going recipes. 

Many consumers connect the idea of the strength 
of coffee with a dark or black color and fancy their coffee 
to be thin and weak if it does not possess such color. 
This is entirely erroneous, as good, pure coffee is never 
so, the dark color being imparted by means of a little 
burnt sugar or other ingredient. The true flavor of pure 
coffee is so little known to some persons that many who 
drink it for the first time doubt of its goodness because it 
tastes of the natural flavor, forgetting that; coffee which does 
not possess the flavor of coffee is not coffee at all, but an 
artificial concoction, for which many other things may be 
substituted at pleasure. Hence it is that if to the vile decoc- 
tions made from chicory, carrots and beets be added the 
slightest quantity of pure coffee, such persons fail to 
detect the difference, and which also accounts for the 
enormous diffusion of such substitutes and adulterants; 



240 PREPARING FOR USE. 



such mixtures with an empirical taste most people fancy to 
be coffee. Another error of frequent occurrence in the 
preparation of coffee for the table, and which results prob- 
ably from the habit of tea-making, is that of using too little 
coffee in proportion to the quantity of water. More 
coffee in proportion should be used than tea, that is, for 
a full pint of the infusion an ounce to an ounce and 
a half of coffee, that being about the proper proportions 
for a beverage of average strength. 

Cafe de Paris — Or " French Coffee " is most gen- 
erally prepared by mixing a cupful of finely-ground coffee 
with a raw egg and shell in a quart of cold water and 
placing the pot over a brisk fire, occasionally stirring it 
until the boiling point is reached, after which set the vessel 
aside to simmer for a few minutes, then pour on a cupful 
of cold water and allow to stand for eight or ten minutes 
before serving, using cream and sugar to suit. 

Cafe au Lait — or " French Breakfast Coffee " is made 
by grinding two tablespoonfuls of coffee for each cup 
required, and packing solidly in a regular French filtering 
coffee-pot, pouring on boiling water and passing it from 
two to three times through the coffee-pot. When serv- 
ing, boiling milk in equal quantity or to suit the individ- 
ual taste is poured into the cup from a separate vessel, 
after which it is sweetened to suit. The French usually 
mix chicory with their coffee, particularly when used in 
the form of cafe an lait. For this form, add half table- 
spoonful of powdered chicory to two tablespoonfuls of 
ground coffee, and after thoroughly mixing, pour on 
boiling water and pass twice through the coffee-pot 
before serving. 



PREPARING FOR USE. 241 

Cafe Noir. — A black " after-dinner coffee," is pre- 
pared by adding four ounces of freshly-ground strong 
coffee to a quart of absolutely boiling water and allow- 
ing it to stand until it reaches the boiling point, mean- 
time passing it twice or thrice through the coffee-pot 
before serving. 

Cafe au Creme — Is prepared by the addition of boiled 
cream to clear, strong, fresh-made coffee and allowing to 
infuse or draw together from fifteen to twenty minutes. 

Cafe Glace. — To.every six cups of freshly-made coffee 
add one egg with cream, and sweeten well, then mix 
thoroughly and place in a refrigerator until frozen to the 
consistency of cream. 

Cafe Demi-tasse — Is a beverage prepared after the 
manner of Ca/e Noir, but sweetened to a much greater 
extent, and to which is added Cognac, Kirsch, or some 
other liqueur, but when taken with a small glass of 
liqueur it becomes a Cafe Gloria. 

Cafe Capucin — Is merely another name for Cafe au 
lait, served in a glass instead of a cup, while " Mazag- 
ran" is coffee served with water instead of milk, the 
coffee which is prepared exactly the same as Demi-tasse 
is served in a tall, narrow glass or goblet, a decanter of 
cold water being served with it, the consumer diluting to 
suit. 

Cafe a la Russe — Like " Tea a la Russe" is simply 
strong, black coffee, prepared after the manner of Cafe au 
lait, to which a squeeze or slice of lemon is added before 
drinking. 

Coffee a la HoUandaise — Is prepared in a vessel 
composed of two detached parts, the lower one answer- 
ing as a reservoir and the upper as a filter ; the bottom 



242 PREPARING FOR USE. 

being perforated with small holes, and over which is 
placed a piece of flannel to cover it entirely. The 
requisite quantity of finely-ground coffee is placed in 
the filter and firmly pressed down, cold water being next 
slowly poured over it, after which it is allowed to stand 
until all the water has percolated through it into the 
reservoir beneath ; the passing of the water occupying 
at least four hours, extracting the full strength and flavor 
of the coffee in that time. The vessel is high and 
narrow, so as to retard as much as possible the passage 
of the liquid, but large enough to hold the requisite 
quantities of both coffee and water at the same time and 
to avoid the necessity of an additional supply of water. 

Vienna Coffee. — The famous Vienna Coffee is pre- 
pared in a somewhat complicated contrivance, resem- 
bling a cylinder or urn, fitted with a coarse sieve, the 
water being boiled by means of an alcohol lamp under- 
neath. When the water boils the steam passes through 
a tube and at the same time through the finely-ground 
coffee, which has previously been placed loose on the 
top, but protected by several strainers, A glass top 
attached to the urn enables the cook to observe when 
the coffee is properly prepared, the process securing a 
perfect infusion of the coffee, and at the same time pre- 
serving its full aroma and other properties. 

Creole Coffee — Is prepared by distillation, the coffee 
being first roasted until it has assumed a uniformly- 
brown color, after which it is covered up and allowed 
to cool. It is then ground and covered up carefully 
again until ready for use, when the requisite quantity is 
put in a filtered coffee-pot into which it is pressed com- 
pactly, a little briskly boiling water is then poured on and 
allowed to filter through the coffee, when more boiling 



PREPARING FOR USE. 243 

water is poured on, the process being repeated about 
every five minutes until ready to serve. The result of this 
process is very strong and rich in extract, which is often 
preserved in a perfectly air-tight jar or other vessel until 
again required for use. A single teaspoonful of which 
is sufficient to yield a rich and creamy cup of the bever- 
age when desired. 

Extract of CofFee— Is, properly speaking, the true 
" Essence of Coffee." It is best obtained by distilling 
one part of pure ground coffee with five parts water and 
keeping them at a temperature of 209° C. in a very close 
vessel for about ten minutes, steaming and evaporating 
it at a low temperature in a vacuum pan until reduced to 
one part. Or it may be more conveniently obtained by 
the Cuban and New Orleans methods already described, 
one spoonful of which yields a delicious cup of coffee 
instantaneously as desired. 

It is not too much to state that more than one- half of 
the beverage which masquerades and is sold under the 
name of coffee, is unworthy of the appellation and that 
the majority of the people of this country live and die 
without ever knowing even the true taste of that delicious 
and exhilarating beverage ; people being prone to think 
that they know all about coffee without ever studying 
what special qualities the different varieties possess, or the 
best methods of preparing it. As a nation, the American 
people want the best of everything and expect to get it, 
and a country which expends so many millions of 
dollars annually for coffee, can well afford to study the 
best methods of selecting and properly preparing it. 
But what avails the best material if it be not prepared 
in such a manner as to develop and extract its most 
volatile, delicate, subtle and refreshing properties, as the 
same properties may be depressing and injurious, or 



244 PREPARING FOR USE. 

exhilarating and beneficial proportionately as they are 
treated ? 

A large proportion of housekeepers purchase their 
coffee already roasted, and many more buy it ground, but 
if bought whole while still hot and kept in an air-tight can 
until required and then ground, the improvement in the 
liquor would amply repay for the trouble expended, as 
much of the fragrance and aroma of the roasted coffee 
is lost by laying too long, there being even a greater 
loss when the coffee is ground for too long a time. But, 
on the other hand, unless the roasting is done very care- 
fully at home, the coffee will not be good, either, as a few 
burnt beans in the roast will invariably spoil the drink. 
So that when careful attention cannot be given to the 
proper roasting of coffee at home, it will be better to pur- 
chase it in the whole bean already roasted but never 
ground, using a small mill which can be regulated to 
grind coarse or fine as needed. 

To roast coffee at home, put the raw beans about an 
inch deep in an ordinary dripping-pan, which must be 
perfectly clean, and hold over a brisk fire and stir fre- 
quently until the beans are sufficiently browned. When 
the coffee becomes a cinnamon-brown, and begin to 
crackle, add one tablespoonful of fresh butter, stirring 
well at the same time, after which remove and place 
while hot in a can, and cover closely, again heating 
the coffee before or after grinding prior to preparing. 
Or place one pound of raw beans in a broad dripping- 
pan, shaking and stirring it until they begin to brown 
and crackle, then turn the pan from end to end rapidly, 
until they are evenly colored to a cinnamon or choco- 
late shade. Then place the pan on a table to rest, and 
stir into the coffee the beaten whites of two eggs and a 
tablespoonful of fresh butter, glazing every bean, as this 



PREPARING FOR USE.' 245 



preserves the aroma until ground. When cool shake the 
beans in a small sieve, so that they may not stick to- 
gether, and put them in an air-tight canister until 
required. 

A combination of one part Mocha, one part Rio and 
two parts Java or Maracaibo will yield a heavy, rich, 
strong-flavored coffee, but not as smooth and pleasing as 
if the Rio were omitted, unless for those preferring it. 
In other words, when a smooth and delicate flavored 
beverage is required, use one-third Mocha and two-thirds 
Java. When strong and heavy is desired, use Rio and 
Maracaibo or temper the former by combining it with some 
of the milder kinds. When a rich, smooth beverage is 
desired, a combination of one-third Mocha and two-thirds 
Java ; if a medium, Java and Maracaibo or some other 
good, mild grade. But when a heavy body and strong 
flavor is required, a blend of Rio or Santos and Maracaibo 
in equal proportions should be made. Good Maracaibo 
being equal to many Javas and is constantly substituted 
for it by unprincipled dealers, both wholesale and retail. 

A combination consisting of one-third Mocha and two- 
thirds Java fresh roasted and fresh ground makes an 
ideal cup of coffee. Two tablespoonfuls or one ounce of 
this blend to each pint of boiling water produces a 
beverage that cannot fail to suit the average taste. But 
for consumers who prefer a heavy-bodied beverage a 
combination of equal proportions of Santos, Caracas and 
Maracaibo, will be found to yield a rich, heavy, pungent 
and fragrant liquor. These quantities are intended for a 
strong beverage, but where only a moderate degree of 
strength is desired it is best to use only half these quan- 
tities of coffee to the same quantity of water. 

Some recent experiments in Germany confirm the 
opinion that coffee, which is an aid to digestion, should 



246 PREPARING FOR USE. 



be an infusion and not a decoction, for which particular 
reason alone the after-dinner coffee especially should be 
an infusion, as the caffeine of coffee, which is the ele- 
ment most stimulating, is best drawn out by keeping the 
coffee at the boiling point, but without boiling, for a few 
minutes before serving, as prolonged boiling extracts 
the astringent property, tannin. There seems to be, 
however, a general tendency in favor of the filtering 
process, by which the use of all foreign substances, such 
as eggs, isinglass, hartshorn, codfish and sole-skins, to 
clear and settle it, may be dispensed with altogether. 

To make filtered coffee with cold water, put one 
teacupful of finely-ground coffee in a small pan and heat 
over the fire. Stir constantly until hot and then put 
the hot coffee in the filter of the coffee-pot, placing the 
coarse strainer on top and pour in a cupful of cold water 
by degrees, then cover and let stand for half an hour. 
Next add three cupfuls of cold water, a cupful at a time, 
and when all the water has passed through the filter, pour 
it out, and pass it again through the filter, cover closely 
and heat it to the boiling point before serving. The 
coffee prepared in this manner will be perfectly clear and 
sparkling in liquor, smooth, rich and fragrant in flavor, or 
mix the coffee with the white of an ^■g^ together, then 
pour one-third of the requisite quantity of cold water 
and set the pot on the range where it will heat up 
gradually until it begins to boil ; then add another third 
of cold water, and when it again begins to boil add the 
balance of cold water and allow it to again reach the 
boiling point; remove and let stand for a few minutes 
to settle before serving. By this method boiling water 
may be used instead of cold if so desired, but the use of 
cold water makes a richer and stronger infusion, as none 
of the aroma of the coffee is lost by evaporation, and the 



PREPARING FOR USE. 247 



refreshing properties are better extracted by the slower 
process. 

Filtered coffee should never be boiled ; so that by plac- 
ing the coffee-pot in a vessel of boiling water it keeps the 
coffee at the boiling point, but prevents it from boiling. 
Coffee made by the cold-water process is invariably 
stronger than when made with boiling water, and is, in 
the opinion of many connoisseurs, much better, so that 
a reduced quantity of coffee will answer. Another 
advantage of using cold water in the filtering process is 
that the coffee may be prepared from it at any time and 
heated as required ; but if to be served after dinner it 
will be better if made with three cupfuls of water instead 
of four. 

But no matter what method of preparing is adopted, 
or what kind of vessel the beverage is prepared in, the 
result will be satisfactory if the coffee be pure, good and 
fresh roasted, fresh ground and fresh made with fresh 
water, fresh boiled and fresh served. But always serve 
with whipped cream or hot milk, heating the milk to 
the boiling point, but never allow it to boil. 



on:^.r*arE^i^ i:x, 






Ij N chemical composition the seeds or beans of coffee 
^ are complex, containing as they do variable pro- 
portions of proximate principles. The appended analysis 
represents the average constitution of raw coffee, according 
to M. Payen, and which is accepted as the standard : — 

Constituents. Parts. 

Fat, lo to 13 

Water, . 12 

Caffeine, 0.8 

Cellulose, . 34 

Legumen and caseine, 10 

Glucose, dextrine and organic acid, .... 15 

Caffeone and aromatic oils, ,...'.. .002 

Caffetannate and potassium, 3 to 5 

Viscid essential oil (insoluble in water), . . . .001 

Ash and other mineral matter, 6 

Other nitrogeneous substances, 3 

In addition to the foregoing, Payen also describes 
some 0.8 per cent, of free Caffeine and very small quan- 
tities of essential and aromatic oils, amounting to about 
0.003 per cent, of the coffee, in addition to other azotized 
and saline matter. 

In the process of roasting, coffee undergoes certain 
chemical changes, as before roasting it contains from 5.7 
to 7.8 per cent, of sugar, which is reduced to i.i, and 



25'0 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS. 



sometimes even to zero, after being roasted, and from 
which, it would appear, that the description of sugar 
contained in the raw coffee is destroyed by the roasting 
process to which it is subjected previous to using. 

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OP UAW AND ROASTED 

COFFEES, 

Constituents. Raw. Roasted. 

Ash, 3.97 5.17 

Fat, 11.42 8.30 

Water, . 8.26 0.36 

Sugar, , 8.18 1.84 

Gluten, 10.68 12.03 

Caffeine, i.io 1.06 

Cellulose, 42.36 44-96 

Extractive matter, i4-03 26.28 

Total parts, 100 100 

In the operation of roasting, the saccharine matter is 
converted into caramel, and a portion of the caffeine is 
liberated from its combination with the caffeic acid, the 
latter still retaining its astringent properties and develop- 
ing into a bitter, soluble principle. A change in the fat of 
coffee is also undergone in the roasting, as ether will 
extract only from 4 to 5 per cent, of fat from the raw 
bean, while it readily extracts double that quantity from 
the roasted bean. So striking is this fact that Von Bibra 
goes so far as to claim that the roasting process produces 
fat, but most probably the process is only mechanical 
and not chemical in its action in bursting the " fat cells," 
and thereby rendering the fat accessible to the solvent 
action of the ether. Roasted coffee is also tolerably rich 
in nitrogen, containing from 2.5 to 3 per cent., but is 
found to be quite devoid of starch. The operation of 
roasting, in addition, tends to make coffee soluble in 
boiling water, as, when raw coffee is perfectly exhausted 



CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS. 25 I 

in boiling water, it will yield only some 25 per cent, of 
soluble matter, while roasted coffee, on the other hand, 
when completely exhausted by means of boiling water, 
yields as high as 40 per cent, in some instances. A 
chemical analysis of the bean after being roasted also 
shows that it contains 20 per cent, of water and about 60 
per cent, of cellulose a substance resembling starch or 
grape sugar. But the agents that especially distinguish 
coffee from all other substances are the Caffeine, Caffeone 
and Caffeic, each of which constituents possess virtues 
and effects peculiar to itself, and produce, by acting in 
combination, the general effect of coffee. 

Caffeine — Is the principle to which coffee owes its 
refreshing and agreeable properties. It is an inodorous 
agent, having a slightly bitter taste, and belonging to 
that group of chemical agents known as alkaloids. It 
is identical with the theine of tea, and also forms the 
characteristic principle of cocoa, mate, the guarana and 
many other plants used by the inhabitants of widely- 
separated countries, on account of their yielding a sHghtly 
exciting and refreshing beverage and apparently forming 
a necessary diet for mankind in general. Its quantity 
varies from 0.8 to i per cent, in the different kinds of 
coffee, being greatest in Martinique and smallest in San 
Domingo. According to Chandler, pure Caffeine appears 
in white silky needles, having no odor, and containing 
about 8 per cent, of water of crystalization, which it parts 
with at 1 50° C, being apparently soluble in cold water, but 
much more so in hot, still less so in alcohol and still less 
in ether, acting as a weak base and dissolving in acids 
from which it may be crystalized by evaporation. When 
boiled with fixed caustic alkalies it decomposes and 
yields methlamine, while heating with basic-hydrates 



252 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS. 

alters it to a stronger base, termed Cafifeidine^ but when 
boiled with an excess of nitric acid and evaporated at a 
gentle heat gives it a reddish color resembling that 
obtained from minoxide; the addition of a little ammonia 
making it again quite characteristic. Administered in 
strong doses it causes trembling and a kind of intoxica- 
tion not unlike that resulting from alcoholic stimulants, 
but diminishes the work of organic tissue at the same 
time. 

Caffeone. — Besides Caffeine coffee contains a volatile 
or essential oil chemically termed Caffeone which, accord- 
ing to some authorities, is not present in the raw bean, 
but is the result of an essential change produced in the 
coffee by the roasting process. It is to this subtle and 
fugitive principle, however, that roasted coffee owes its 
peculiar and fragrant aroma, an odor possessed by no 
other known substance. When chemically separated by 
ether from the coffee it presents the appearance and con- 
sistency of cocoa-butter, which in roasting permeates the 
entire bean, but if the heat be too intense or the roasting 
prolonged beyond the proper time, it is entirely dissipated 
and lost, the result being to seriously injure the coffee. 
And although coffee forms part of the daily food of more 
than half the nations of the world, we are still uncertain 
of the chemical nature, composition and effects of these 
products of roasted coffee, and particularly of this "oil of 
coffee," one of the most important characteristic con- 
stituents of the bean. The existence of this coffee oil 
makes itself known in a striking manner by its roasting; 
being forced out of the bean by the intense heat, it is 
partially volatilized, and together with the other products 
of the roasting, produces the characteristic effects and 
aroma of roasted coffee. In very strong black coffee it is 
found in oil-like drops floating on the surface, the amount 



CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS. 253 



in the raw bean varying from 8 to 1 3 per cent., at least one- 
half of which is dissipated and lost in the roasting, so that it 
might prove a paying experiment to attempt to collect 
this oil, especially in large establishments where much 
coffee is roasted, several pounds of this oil being wasted 
daily which might find a ready market at a handsome profit 
in the manufacture of liqueurs. It is best obtained by 
crushing about 50 pounds of roasted coffee in a mortar 
and then extracting with the aid of ether and alcohol. 
The oil of coffee obtained in this manner is a thick, green, 
almost transparent substance, which deposits after a time 
a few long needles of caffeine, proving that since caffeine is 
not extracted from the exhausted beans by ether, and very 
little is taken up by the alcohol employed, the coffee 
from which the oil has been extracted may be again used 
for the manufacture of caffeine. The oil becomes turbid 
in about six months from the time of extraction, although 
preserved in hermetically-sealed bottles small groups of 
crystals forming in the middle of the liquid, but slowly 
settling in the bottom, forming a precipitate, which in time 
forms a cloudy mass of crystals, consisting of the solid 
fatty acids, but the upper layer remaining clear and trans- 
parent foryears, and of a beautiful green color, proving that 
a portion of the coffee oil consists of liquid oleic acid. 
Taken alone, this " oil of coffee " is found to produce 
a gentle perspiration and exhilaration, as well as to 
stimulate the mental faculties, but is claimed to retard, in 
a marked degree, the process of food assimilation, and 
consequently the waste of tissue matter. It also produces 
an aperient effect on the bowels, while overdoses cause 
sleeplessness and symptoms of sthenic excitement, a 
condition clearly bordering on inflammation. 

Experiments made with Caffeine and Caffeone prove 
that they produce different effects on the animal economy, 



254 CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS, 

the former exercising a sedative and tranquilizing action, 
being more prolonged in its effect than the latter, which 
acts strongly as a transient stimulant and exhilarant. 
But in the drinking of an ordinary cup of coffee both 
these actions are obtained, the stimulation and exhilara- 
tion preceding the state of sedation and repose. The 
essential principle of the coffee, however, is the alkaloid 
caffeine and not the volatile oil caffeone, the effects 
of both constituents being different in time and character- 
The former slows the heart's action and expends its 
main force on the spinal cord, to which effect is due the 
shaking hand of the inveterate coffee-drinker and the 
marked tremor which sometimes follows a copious 
drink of coffee when taken on an empty stomach, while 
the latter reduces the arterial tension, thereby allowing 
a freer flow of blood and a more rapid action of the heart, 
at the same time stimulating the brain, rendering the 
mind clear and promoting wakefulness, being also speedier 
and more transient in effect. 

Gafieic. — Caffetannate, or " tannic acid," as it exists in 
the raw bean of coffee possesses an astringent action, which 
is greatly modified in the roasting and neutralized by 
the aperient properties of the Caffeone. A great deal 
of doubt still exists as to the exact agency of this 
property in coffee, many chemists contending that to it 
the flavor and other properties of the coffee as a bever- 
age is due. It is a powerful astringent principle, puck- 
ering up the mouth when chewed, and is the property to 
which coffee owes its bitterness when boiled or over- 
infused, but whether it contributes in any degree to the 
exhilarating, satisfying or narcotic action of the coffee 
has not yet been definitely determined. But united, 
their specific properties modified by combination and 



CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS. 255 

acting and reacting upon each other, these three con- 
stituents give to coffee its pecuHar properties and effects 
on the human system. 

To the chemist, coffee and tea are much the same, 
their two alkaloids, caffeine and iheine, being to them 
undistinguishable one from the other, each also con- 
taining a volatile or essential oil, the difference in the 
taste of which is doubtless due to subtle properties 
which the chemist is so far unable to detect. For this 
reason the following comparative analysis of coffee and 
tea may be found interesting, as showing how closely 
they are chemically allied : — 

Constituents. Coffee. Tea. 

Water, . 12.0 5.0 

Theine, 0.75 0.5 

Tannin, 5. 15.0 

Gluten, 13.0 25.0 

Wood fibre, 34.0 24.0 

Volatile oil, 13.0 4.0 

Gum and sugar, . , 15.0 21.0 

Ash or residue, . 7.0 5.0 

From recent experiments it appears that the quantity 
of tannin in the coffee bean is not over about one-third 
of that contained in the tea leaf and frequently is consider- 
ably less, six samples of coffee being tested in the same 
manner as tea for the amount of soluble tannin, and 
steeped in fifty parts of water. Equal quantities of coffee 
and tea were also analyzed and the amount of tannin 
estimated with the result that, on an average, tea yielded 
nearly four times as much tannin than the coffee, which 
proves that in case of poisoning by alkaloids strong tea 
is better than coffee as an antidote. When used in 
equal quantities tea yields about twice the amount of 
theine that coffee does to the water in which it is 



256 MEDICINAL EFFECTS. 

infused, but as we use a greater weight of coffee than 
we do of tea in preparing the beverage, a cup of 
coffee of ordinary strength will contain as much theine 
as a cup of ordinary strong tea. While, however, coffee 
checks waste and is naturally a food, the same cannot be 
said of tea, the specific effect of which is to quicken 
respiration and the vital functions generally. 



Coffee belongs to the medicinal or auxiliary class of 
food substances, being solely valuable for its stimulating 
and exhilarating effect upon the nervous and vascular 
system. It produces a feeling of buoyancy and exhila- 
ration comparable to a certain stage of alcoholic intoxica- 
tion, but which does not end in the depression and collapse 
produced by the latter. It increases the frequency of the 
pulse, lightens the sensations of fatigue and sustains the 
strength under prolonged and severe muscular exertion. 
It also contains valuable medicinal properties, among 
which is that of being an anti-soporific, and hence most 
useful in narcotic poisoning. It has also been found to 
be the best stimulant for administration to persons res- 
cued from starvation or perishing from intense cold, as 
ardent spirits when given under these conditions often 
prove fatal. It dispels languor, stupor and lethargy and 
as an antidote is a specific in cases of poisoning by 
opium and morphine. 

Theearly history of coffee informs us of its use among 
the Arabians for its exhilarating as well as its curative 
powers, being used in Mecca and Medina originally for the 
purpose of overcoming torpor and drowsiness by the 
Mohamedan monks, its exciting and sleep-dispeUing 



MEDICINAL EFFECTS. 257 



power tending much to bring it into popular favor in 
these cities as a medicine as well as a beverage. At this 
early period it was claimed that " this liquor purified the 
blood by gentle agitation, dissipated the ill-condition of 
the stomach and aroused the spirits." In the treatment 
of spasmodic asthma its utility is well established as well 
as in the cure of whooping cough, cholera infantum and 
similar complaints, being also an excellent preventative 
against all infectious and epidemical diseases. While in 
hysterical attacks, for which, in many instances, the 
physician can find no diagnosis, coffee has proven to be 
one of the greatest helps. 

Fresh-roasted coffee has proven to be an effective dis- 
peller of foul gases as well as a valuable disinfectant in the 
sick-room, or any enclosed space where the fumes can 
penetrate. As an instantaneous deodorizer, particularly 
in the sick-room, where it has no equal, possessing 
wonderful, almost magical power, all foul and noxious 
exhalations being immediately neutralized or dispelled 
by simply passing a chafing-dish of fresh-roasted coffee 
through the room. As a disinfectant fresh-roasted coffee 
has been invaluable as an absorbing agent in purifying the 
atmosphere of all foul-smelling and offensive odors, 
especially when roasted in the vicinity of the room or 
place to be fumigated. When roasted, and while still hot, 
if placed on a tray or other open vessel in the centre of 
the apartment, by the time it has cooled the surrounding 
atmosphere will be rendered thoroughly pure and sweet. 
Or, better and more advantageous still, by heating an iron 
fire-shovel red hot and placing a handful of ground coffee 
on it and carrying it around the room or house to be 
disinfected in this condition until it cools. The vapor 
arising from the coffee so heated will meantime have 
destroyed all disagreeable and noxious odors. 



258 MEDICINAL EFFECTS. 



Experiments recently made with roasted coffee in 
France prove it to be one of the most powerful deodor- 
izers yet discovered for the dissipation of all noxious 
odors. As an instance of its great worth in this case, a 
quantity of decomposing meat was hung up in a tightly- 
closed room and a tin pan containing a few handfuls of 
fresh-roasted and ground coffee was placed over a spirit 
lamp, as the pan became hot and the vapor from the 
coffee filled the room, it was found that the foul smell of 
the decomposed meat was entirely removed, even when 
standing close up to it. While Professor Beer, an eminent 
Vienna oculist, maintains that the vapor arising from pure, 
hot and fresh-made coffee is very invigorating to the eyes, 
but at the same time attributing many frequent occurring 
cases of affections to the sight to the constant use of 
chicory, as well as to the habitual use of the decoctions 
prepared from the admixtures of chicory and coffee. 

Coffee and pepper are highly recommended as a certain 
specific for rheumatism, as well as in many forms of gout. 
In such cases the proper proportions consist of a pint 
of hot, strong, black coffee, which must be perfectly 
pure, and seasoned with a teaspoonful of pure black 
pepper, thoroughly mixed before drinking, and the 
preparation taken just before retiring. Quite a number 
of chronic cases of rheumatism are reputed on excellent 
authority to have been cured by a single dose of this 
simple remedy. The greatest care has to be exercised, 
however, that cold is not contracted through the free 
perspiration that follows its use, yet severe colds may also 
be broken up and cured by its administration. Such a 
simple and convenient remedy is certainly worth a trial, as 
it is, at least, perfectly harmless, and makes no demand on 
the doctor or druggist. Another use for coffee medi- 
cinally, is in nausea and violent retching, for which purpose 



MEDICINAL EFFECTl. 259 



a strong infusion is prepared and " sipped " slowly while 
very hot. This oftentimes acts effectively alone, but is 
much more so if a strong mustard plaster is applied to the 
pit of the stomach at the same time. Its beneficial effects 
in extreme alcoholism is already too well known for 
description, but is as yet not fully appreciated in such 
cases, nor as to what extent this otherwise exhilarating and 
potent beverage may be substituted in lieu of spirituous 
and malt liquors. It is positively asserted by men of high 
professional ability that when the system requires a good 
stimulant, nothing equals a cup of good, strong, fresh-made 
coffee for the purpose, so that those who may desire to 
rescue a drunkard from his bane will find no better substi- 
tute for alcoholic spirits or malt liquors than strong, fresh- 
made coffee, in the proportions of two ounces of good, 
pure coffee to one part of boiling water, making an excel- 
lent tonic beverage, but must be administered without the 
addition of either milk or sugar in these particular cases. 
It is also positively asserted by those who have tried it 
that malarial and other miasmatic complaints are prevented 
by drinking a cup of hot coffee before venturing out into 
the morning air, and by many eminent physicians it is 
regarded as almost a specific in typhoid and other ende- 
mic fevers, so much so that in malarial and intermittent 
fevers it has been used by the best physicians with the 
happiest results, coffee being opposed to malarial and all 
noxious vapors, particularly in alienating and reducing 
the earlier attacks, and, when properly administered in 
such complaints, it is found superior to the sulphate of 
quinine in many extreme cases, while in that low state of 
intermittent fever as found on the Mississippi and the 
banks of all large rivers, accompanied with torpid liver 
and enlarged spleen, when judiciously prepared and ad- 
ministered it has been found one of the safest and most 



26o MEDICINAL EFFECTS. 

effective remedies. In districts rife with malarial and 
other low fevers the drinking of hot coffee before pass- 
ing into the infected districts will enable persons living 
in such regions to escape all contagion, the nervous sys- 
tem being aroused and the fever germs thereby 
rendered innocuous by the coffee. It is also almost a 
specific for the disease after being contracted when used 
with lemon juice, and is found to be of sovereign 
efficacy in tiding over any attacks of the nervous 
system in a number of emergencies from whatever cause ; 
and in answer to the query so often put, " Does coffee 
facilitate or retard digestion ?" it may be observed that it 
contains several active principles, each of which exercises 
a specific influence on the human system, the first and 
most important of these being the caffeine, which raises 
the activity of the heart, operating in small doses as a 
wholesome stimulus. The second, the caffeone or vola- 
tile substance, which operates chiefly on the nerves and 
acting in moderate quantities as an agreeable exhilarant, 
but to which is also attributable the fantasies and intoxi- 
cant effects so frequently experienced as a result of exces- 
sive coffee drinking. The third being the caffeic or 
tannin, to which coffee owes its bitter taste when boiled 
or over-infused and which, as is well known, enters into 
combination with the albumen, thereby materially preju- 
dicing its digestibility. These three principal properties 
vary greatly in the quantities extracted according to the 
methods of preparation, so much so that if the coffee be 
simply infused in water at the boiling point and allowed 
to cool rapidly we get but little of the caffeine in the 
extract, a good deal of the aromatic principle and 
scarcely a trace of the tannin, but by over-boiling 
and prolonged infusion the aroma is dissipated by 
passing off with the steam or vapor arising from it 



MEDICINAL EFFECTS. 26 1 

in the process of preparation, more caffeine being 
also extracted, and the longer it is infused or boiled the 
more tannin is dissolved in the liquid. These facts serve 
to confirm the views generally expressed by physicians, 
that coffee boiled or over-infused prejudices its digesti- 
bility, while simple infusions facilitate it, but its bene- 
ficial action in the latter case is now proved to be due 
not to any direct chemical action on the albumen present, 
but indirectly to its action on the nerve-centres of the 
stomach by promoting the secretion of the gastric juices, 
such action being, in other words, physiological and not 
chemical, as heretofore supposed. 

With regard to the anti-bilious properties of coffee Dr. 
Elliott states that " We speedily found that patients in 
hospitals and all persons leading sedentary lives must 
avoid too concentrated food and drink abundantly of 
diluent fluids, that coffee acted on the liver and was 
altogether the best remedy for constipation and what is 
commonly termed a bilious condition, that tea acted in a 
precisely opposite direction, and that not poppies, man- 
dragora nor all the drowsy syrups of the East could 
bring the peace to a sufferer from malarial chill that 
would come of strong coffee, with a little lemon juice 
added, and that strong tea was almost a specific for 
neuralgia in its simplest and most uncomplicated form." 
Liebig also calls attention to the fact that coffee con- 
tains many of the elements which stimulate the flow of 
bile, being a decided laxative, as well as a pronounced 
diuretic, which is confirmed by the fact that the " coffee 
belt " of the world is also the " bilious belt " and the 
" malarial belt," as well as the regions where noxious 
germs and suppurative processes most abound. Ample 
evidence of "the fitness of things" in nature, no people 
understanding better than the inhabitants of these tropical 



262 MEDICINAL EFFECTS. 



countries the value of coffee to open the secretions which 
have been checked by the heat or miasmatic influences of 
such cHmates. Knowing this, they take full advantage 
of the well-known antiseptic properties of coffee. 

It is now more than thirty years since Landarabilco 
called attention to the great value of raw or unroasted 
coffee in hepatic and nephritic diseases ; who, after having 
continued to use the remedy for over a third of a century 
in many hundreds of almost hopeless cases, still continues 
to use it with marked success in the treatment of liver 
and kidney troubles which have persistently resisted all 
other treatment. For such cases, 3 drams (^ oz.) of 
raw coffee beans are placed in a tumbler of cold water — 
the best results being obtained from a combination of 
Mocha, Bourbon and Martinique coffees in equal parts 
of I dram each. The infusion is allowed to stand over 
night, and after being properly strained or filtered must 
be taken on an empty stomach the first thing on rising 
in the morning. This simple remedy has been found a 
sovereign remedy in numerous cases of renal and hepatic 
colics, as well as in diabetes and migraime or nervous 
headache, which, while rebellious to all other treatment 
for years, readily yielded to the raw coffee infusion. It 
may be here remarked that Bourbon and Martinique 
coffees cannot be had in this country, going exclusively 
to France, but may be substituted by what is known 
in trade as Bourbon or Mocha-seed, Santos, Jamaica and 
Mocha or almost any other fine mild coffee. 

Coffee, like tea, acts powerfully on the respiratory 
organs, but increases the rate of respiration more than 
tea and also the pulsation ; while tea, on the other hand, 
increases the action of the skin, and, by lessening the 
force of the circulation, cools the body, and does not 
cause congestion of any of the mucous membranes, 



MEDICINAL EFFECTS. 263 

particularly that of the bowels. But coffee, by diminishing 
the action of the skin, lessens also the heat of the body, 
but increases the vis-a-tergo, and therefore the heart's 
action and fulness of pulse, thus exciting the mucous 
membranes. The conditions, therefore, under which 
coffee may be used are different from those suited to the 
use of tea, and under these circumstances better adapted 
for use among the poor and feeble as a dietecal beverage. 
But, besides accelerating the action of the bowels, and, 
according to Liebig, aiding in the secretion of the bile, 
it also invigorates to a very high degree the ganglionic 
system of the brain, soothing the painful feeling of 
fatigue and exhaustion, stimulating to renewed mental 
exertion, for which reasons it always has been highly 
appreciated by students and literary people generally. 
The exhilarating and stimulating effect which coffee 
has on the human organization is due chiefly to the 
characteristic principles which it contains. It excites 
the heart's action, and, as that organ is feeble in the 
morning and the skin is active, it is best adapted for use 
at the morning meal, its action upon the nervous system 
being less exciting than that of tea. Very strong coffee, 
however, produces sleeplessness in many persons when 
taken at night, owing to its effects on the heart's action, 
by retarding that full action of this organ, which is 
natural at night, and so requisite to permit sound sleep, 
while if only a light infusion be prepared and taken at 
night, these effects are not likely to be experienced. 

In typhoid and other fevers its action is frequently 
very prompt and efficacious, particularly in the early 
stages before local complications set in. Dr. Guillasse, 
of the French navy, in a recent paper on typhoid 
fever, states that " Coffee has given us unhoped- 
for satisfaction, for, after having dispensed it, we found, 



264 MEDICINAL EFFECTS. 



to our great surprise, that its action was as prompt 
as it was decisive. No sooner had our patients taken a 
few tablespoonfuls of it than their features became 
relaxed, and came immediately to their senses, while the 
next day the improvement was such that we are tempted 
to look upon it as a specific against typhoid fever. Under 
its influence the stupor is dispelled and the patient arises 
from the state of somnolency in which he has lain since 
the invasion of the disease ; soon all the functions take 
their natural course, and he enters on convalescence." 
His formula is to give to an adult two to three table- 
spoonfuls of strong, black coffee every two hours, alter- 
nately with one to two tablespoonfuls of claret or bur- 
gundy wine, a little lemonade or citrate of magnesia, to be 
taken daily, and after a few days quinine in small doses. 
From the fact that malaise or cerebral symptoms appear 
first, the doctor regards typhoid as a nervous disease, 
and the coffee, acting on the nerves, is peculiarly indi- 
cated in the early stages, before local complications arise. 
While in extreme cases of yellow fever it has been 
used effectively by many doctors as the main reliance 
after all the other well-known remedies had been admin- 
istered and failed. In such cases it acts by retarding the 
tissue change, that becoming a conservator of force, 
especially in that state in which the nervous system tends 
to collapse, owing to the blood becoming impure. In 
such a condition it sustains the nervous power until the 
depuration and reorganization of the blood are accom- 
plished, possessing the advantage over all other stimu- 
lants of inducing to no secondary ill-effects. 

As early as 1835, during the cholera epidemic, the 
physicians of New York issued a public manifesto urging 
the people to abstain from beer and other liquors and 
confine themselves to the exclusive use of pure, strong 



MEDICINAL EFFECTS. 265 

cofifee as a beverage, in order to keep the system healthy 
and render it less liable to an attack of the disease, with 
the most beneficial and gratifying results. That they 
" builded better than they knew " has since been conclu- 
sively proven by Sudentz, who in detailing a series of 
experiments in which he has determined the powerful 
influence of cofifee infusions of varying strength upon the 
growth of the different forms of pathogenic and non- 
pathogenic micro-organisms. The variety of cofifee used 
in these experiments was the finest Java — although good 
and bad cofifee was afterwards found to efifect precisely 
similar results — the infusions being made by adding from 
10 to 30 parts of cofifee to from 70 to 90 parts of boiling 
water. The cofifee was first freshly roasted, ground fine 
and then covered with the boiling water, the infusion 
thus prepared being placed in a closed flask, put in a 
hot water bath for about ten minutes and next filtered 
through a sterilized filter. The infusion thus produced 
is used in the making of a gelatinous compound, both 
directly and in part, until a nutrient gelatine was prepared 
from it. With this as a " menstruum " the various forms 
oi ftingi and other forms of micro-organisms were inoc- 
ulated with the object of determining the possibility of 
their growth or propagation in such a medium, but in 
other cases the organisms were added directly to the 
cofifee alone in infusions of varying strength and after dif- 
ferent periods of time inoculations were made from these 
infusions into other nutrient media. By this method he 
found that the forms oi fungi experimented with showed 
more or less growth in the cofifee gelatine and that the 
abundance of the growth was in many cases distinctly 
less than in the former media. The other organisms 
which he used for his experiments were the pliyogenes 
aureus, prodigiosus, trisipelous, the germ of anthrax or 



266 MEDICINAL EFFECTS. 

splenic fever, the bacilli oi typhoid fever and the spirulwn 
of Asiatic cholera, all of which and many other forms of 
micro-organisms were greatly influenced in their life and 
growth by exposure to the coffee infusions, some being 
far more susceptible than others, however, the bacillus 
prodigiosiis and proteits vulgaris being entirely destroyed 
only after an exposure of four days in a lo per cent, 
infusion, while in a 30 per cent, infusion they were all 
destroyed in one day. The spore of erysipelas was totally 
destroyed after an exposure of one day in a 10 per cent. 
infusion, the germ of splenic fever dying in from one to 
three hours in a 20 to 30 per cent, infusion ; while the 
typhoid bacilli were completely destroyed in a 5 per cent, 
infusion after an exposure of three days and in a 30 per 
cent, infusion in from one to two days. While the microbe 
of Asiatic cholera was easily destroyed in a i per cent, 
infusion after only seven hours' exposure^ in a 5 per cent, 
infusion after four hours and in a jo per cent, infusion 
after tivo hours ; the cholera spiridum being by far 
the most susceptible of the numerous organisms used 
in the experiments, next to which was the anthrax 
bacilli, except the young forms or spores of the latter 
germs, which perish only in from three to four weeks' 
exposure. These latter results speak volumes for 
"coffee as a germicide" for anthrax or splenic fever, 
as the spores of this disease are by no means easy to 
scotch or kill, and after these revelations coffee adminis- 
tered internally or hypodermically in some new form or 
combination of forms, may be eventually used as a remedy 
for all germ- produced diseases. It must be borne in mind 
by the student or chemist, however, that the antiseptic 
effects of coffee do not depend on its Caffeine so much as 
on its Caffcone or essential oil developed in the roasting 
of the beans. But aside from these experiments, others 



MEDICINAL EFFECTS. 267 



were also made with decomposing meat soups, which were 
actually swarming with various forms of micro-organ- 
isms, the results obtained showing that the vitality of the 
spores contained in the fluid was greatly diminished after 
a short exposure, but was not completely destroyed until 
after an exposure of many days. 

It may at first sight seem irrational that a substance 
which restricts tissue-waste should be used for the pur- 
pose of quickening certain other functions, more espe- 
cially those of the brain, yet the physical activity, mental 
exhilaration and wakefulness it causes explains the liking 
for it shown by so many men of science, poets, scholars 
and others devoted to thinking. But all of these 
occupations involve increased waste of tissue in the 
brain as well as of the spinal marrow, the very 
action which coffee is said to restrain, so much so 
that to reconcile these apparent incongruities, it has been 
maintained that coffee does not act primarily as a cere- 
bral stimulant, but only secondarily by removing the 
vascular plenitude occasioned by prolonged study, by 
a full meal, and especially by opium, alcohol, or other 
agents which directly tend to load the brain with blood, 
so that when taken on an empty stomach it does not 
quicken the functions of the brain, but on the contrary 
renders it dull and inapt for steady thought, creating 
nervousness and general debility and frequently causing 
hemicrania. 

During digestion, however, the case is different, par- 
ticularly if a full and stimulating meal has been taken, 
the mind grows dull and sluggish, a tendency to sleep 
arises, and everything indicates an increased amount of 
blood on the brain, it being in like manner that prolonged 
mental labor produces cerebral plenitude and drowsiness. 
It is this condition apparently which coffee corrects 



268 MEDICINAL EFFECTS. 

by contracting the blood-vessels and thereby relieving 
the brain of its oppressive load of blood. The habit of 
using coffee at breakfast and after dinner is thus explained 
by the stimulant action which it exerts, not only upon 
the nervous system generally, but more especially on the 
stomach and bowels, there being no doubt that it quickens 
gastric digestion and relieves the sense of plenitude in 
the stomach, stimulating the secretion of bile and aug- 
menting the peristaltic action of the intestine, and there- 
by promoting defacation. While it is quite as certain 
that, used to excess, it paralyzes the digestive function in 
all its stages and leads to further disorders, of which the 
chief are constipation, hemorrhoids and congestion of 
the liver, but whether these effects are to be ascribed to 
a power in coffee to produce contraction of the capillary 
blood-vessels or not is uncertain, but their reality is 
beyond dispute. 

With regard to the injurious effects charged to the 
abuse of coffee by some authorities, it rtiay be said that 
the consequences of an abuse of tea were declared to be 
similar to that of coffee long before chemistry had 
demonstrated the identity of theme with caffeine, when 
among their evil effects were enumerated acidity, heartburn, 
indigestion, tremors, wakefulness, irritability of disposition 
and depression of spirits. Most of these ill-effects 
are more likely to follow the abuse of tea than coffee, if 
at all, and the spinal symptoms, such as painful muscular 
tension, cramp and persistent wakefulness, are also more 
apt to be produced by tea. In experiments made with a 
number of selected healthy persons, the operation of 
caffeine has been found to vary exceedingly, some being 
scarcely affected at all, while others by the same dose 
suffered from a full, frequent or irregular pulse, headache, 
trembling limbs, palpitation of the heart, flashes before 



MEDICINAL EFFECTS. 269 



the eyes, roaring in the ears, sleeplessness, phantasms, a 
sort of intoxication, and a subsequent unfitness for all 
physical and mental labor when very large doses were 
taken. These effects illustrate the danger of exceeding 
due moderation in the use of coffee, showing that it may, 
if abused, tend to develop a morbid condition of the ner- 
vous system, rendering it peculiarly liable to disease, 
although in a much less degree than either opium or 
alcohol, its excessive use being much more injurious to 
the spinal than to the cerebral functions. 

From these facts it may be advanced by some authori- 
ties that an article possessing such great powers and 
capacity for such energetic action must be injurious by 
habitual employment as an article of diet, or at least not 
without some injurious or deleterious properties. But 
no corresponding ill-results or nervous derangements 
are ever observed after its effects have disappeared as are 
noticed in other narcotics and stimulants, the action im- 
parted to the nervous system by coffee being natural and 
healthy in the extreme, in proof of which it has been 
shown that habitual coffee- drinkers generally enjoy 
good health and spirits, some of the longest-lived 
people having used coffee continually from their earliest 
infancy without experiencing any inconvenience, depres- 
sing reaction, or other ill-effects such as is invariably 
produced by the use of alcoholic stimulants. There 
are, on the other hand, systems with which it does not 
agree, as, being a stimulant, it may be taken too freely; 
in such cases it undoubtedly produces irregularities 
in the action of the heart and nervous system. But 
generally it is an unmixed blessing, its beneficial influence 
becoming more apparent as its use penetrates into the 
lower strata of society, taking the place of the various 
debasing alcoholic beverages. 



270 DIETETICAL PROPERTIES. 

In addition to its many other virtues, coffee has been 
found to be an excellent barometer, from the fact of its 
being such a great absorbent. On the eve of a rain- 
storm grinding coffee will be found difficult, the bean 
becoming damp and tough, while when dry weather is 
indicated the process is quite easy. Another method of 
predicting the weather by it is to drop a lump of sugar 
into a cup of coffee without stirring. In a very short 
time the air contained in the sugar will rise to the surface 
in the shape of bubbles. If the bubbles collect in the 
middle of the cup a fair day will be sure to follow, but if 
they should adhere to the side of the cup, forming a 
ring of bubbles with a clear space in the centre, rain is 
certain to be near at hand, while if the bubbles be neither 
of these, but scatter irregularly over the surface of 
the liquid, variable weather is indicated by the move- 
ment. What the scientific explanation of the action of 
the atmosphere on the bubbles so found is not known, 
but that their indications curiously and correctly 
agree with those of a barometer has been tested and 
proved. 

The human family have, from time immemorial, been 
addicted to the use of warm food and liquids in some 
form, infusions or decoctions of sage and the leaves of 
other plants being used extensively in Europe for the 
purpose prior to the introduction of tea and coffee. 
The human body demands food or liquid when in an 
exhausted state, and if they be' not warm they make an 
immediate drain on the system for heat before it can sup- 
ply material for combustion, so that the body is taxed for 
heat at a time when it is least fitted for the purpose. It 



DIETETICAL PROPERTIES. 27 1 

is but natural therefore that there should be a craving 
for warm food and drink, and as liquid food, partic- 
ularly in a cold state, is deficient in heat-giving matter, 
the use of cold liquids is more injurious than that of 
cold solids. The temperature of the human body being 
98°, when food is taken into the stomach at a lower 
temperature than that of the body, it obstructs the heat 
from the stomach and surrounding tissues, so that when 
the practice of taking cold food into the body becomes 
habitual, depression occurs and the stomach is disordered. 
The system must therefore make good the heat lost in 
raising the temperature of the cold food — liquid or solid 
— or else suffer the consequences. 

The action of coffee as a diet is directed chiefly to the 
nervous system, producing a warming cordial impression 
on the stomach, which is quickly followed by a diffused 
and agreeable nervous excitement which extends itself 
to the cerebral function, giving rise to increased vigor of 
the imagination and intellect, this too without any subse- 
quent reaction or stupor such as are characteristic of liquor 
and other narcotics. It contains essential principles of 
nutrition far exceeding in importance its exhilarating 
properties, and is one of the most valuable articles of food 
for sustaining the system in certain protracted and wasting 
diseases, and as compared even with the best soups, coffee 
has a decided advantage and is to be preferred to them in 
many cases. But to rightly understand its function as a food 
it should be used chiefly as an accessary to food, as it aids 
in the digestion and assimilation of the other foods 
when it is properly prepared — that is, by protracted 
infusion — as when boiled too long the caffeic acid or 
tannin is extracted. The action of this acid in 
combination with the milk and cream being to harden 
the albumen into an indigestible compound, which has 



272 DIETETICAL PROPERTIES. 

been found exceedingly irritating to the delicate mem- 
branes of the digestive organs and nervous system. 
Milk and coffee act similarly upon the skin and other 
organs, its use with coffee making it a more perfect food 
than when milk is used with tea. But while, like tea, it 
increases the respiration, yet again, unlike it, its effects 
are not lasting, as by the use of coffee the rate of the 
pulse is increased, and the action of the skin's pores 
diminished, thereby lessening the quantity of the blood 
circulating in the organs of the body, it distends the veins, 
but contracts the capillaries, thus preventing a waste. 
According to Professor Johnstone, " Coffee arouses, ex- 
hilarates and keeps awake, counteracts the stupor oc- 
casioned by fatigue, disease or opium, allays hunger to a 
certain extent, gives to the wearied increased strength 
and vigor, and imparts a feeling of comfort and repose. 
Its physiological effects upon the human system appear 
to be, that while it makes the brain more active, it 
soothes the body generally, retards the change and waste 
of tissue, making the demand for food consequently less. 
The Gallae, a wandering nation of Africa, during their 
incursions, are obliged to travel over immense deserts, 
and being also desirous of falling upon the towns and 
villages of their victims without warning, carry nothing 
to eat with them but the roasted and pulverized beans of 
coffee, which they mix with grease to a certain consist- 
ency, that will permit of its being rolled into masses about 
the size of billiard-balls, which they keep in leather- 
bags until required for use. One of these balls so pre- 
pared supports them for an entire day when on a marauding 
excursion or in active war better than a loaf of bread or 
a meal of meat, claiming that they prefer it to grain or 
meat because it cheered their spirits as well as fed them. 
Eaten in this manner, coffee undoubtedly affords much 



DIETETICAL PROPERTIES. 273 



nourishment, as, according to Payen, it contains more 
than twice the nutriment of soup and three times as 
much as tea. In the liquid state, however, the nitroge- 
neous or flesh-forming properties, being mostly insoluble, 
they remain in the grounds. For this reason coffees 
hghtly roasted possesses the maximum of nutrition, 
strength and aroma. 

The Belgian coal miners live and work effectively on a 
ration of solid food less than the French miners, yet per- 
form more labor than the latter, the only difference in their 
food consisting in the Belgians receiving a ration of coffee 
insteadof wine, to which is attributed their greater endur- 
ance. While Jomand states that eight pints of an infusion 
^made with six ounces of different kinds of coffee 
enabled him to live for five consecutive days without 
lessening his ordinary occupations, as well as t6 use 
more and prolonged muscular exercise than he was 
accustomed to without any other physical injury than 
a slight degree of fatigue and a little loss of flesh. 
The value of hot infusions of coffee under the rigors 
of an Arctic cold has been demonstrated by the 
experience of all polar explorers, and it has been 
found scarcely less useful in tropical regions, where 
it beneficially stimulates the action of the skin. Cap- 
tain Parry states that when on his Arctic expedition he 
placed his starboard watch on a diet of coffee and the 
port watch on that of rum, as an experiment, with the 
result that the coffee watch was found to possess a vigor of 
health and activity entirely wanting in that of the other. 
And many of our own troops during the late war 
declared that they could march longer and endure more 
hardship and exposure under the stimulus of a cup of 
warm coffee — and they got far from the best or purest — 
than they could under an equal quantity of liquor. 



274 DIETETICAL PROPERTIES. 



But there is still another effect of coffee — that of 
checking the too rapid consumption of nitrogeneous 
matter in the system — which, while not nutritious 
in itself, yet possesses an indirect nutritive value, this 
result, added to its stimulating character, have made 
it the chosen beverage for breakfast, and therefore 
the best staple supply for both our army and navy. 
By taking a cup of strong, black coffee, without milk 
or sugar, between two glasses of hot water before rising 
in the morning and at least an hour before breakfast, the 
various secretions are stimulated and the nervous force 
aroused, so that an hour later a hearty meal is enjoyed and 
the day's labor b^^gun favorably, no matter how the duties 
of the day and night preceding may have drawn upon the 
system. While another cup at four in the afternoon is 
sufficient to sustain the flagging energies for many hours 
thereafter. In this manner its full effect is best secured, 
but if along with this the proper diet is taken at the 
proper time, the capacity for work will be almost unlimited. 
Its physiological effects upon the human system, so far 
as they have been investigated, appear to be that while 
it makes the brain more active it soothes the body gen- 
erally, making the waste and loss of tissue slower and 
the demand for food less. It is a mental stimulus of a 
high order, and therefore is as a beverage liable to be 
abused for that reason. Through its influence the stu- 
dent burns the midnight oil to excess, and consequently 
reduces his store of physical force. 

The German naturalist Martin relates a case he met 
with of a horse which owed its life to the use of coffee 
after being in a condition considered as incurable. The 
animal was reduced to a mere skeleton and so weak that 
it could scarcely walk, when infusions of coffee were first 
given it as an experiment, and then some ground coffee 



MORAL INFLUENCE. 275 

mixed with honey. In a short time the animal began to 
improve rapidly, eventually becoming better than ever. 
The same treatment was afterwards tried with like suc- 
cess in many similar cases where the horses had been 
over-worked or lost their strength and appetite. 

It has been affirmed that coffee and other substances 
containing the alkaloid Caffeine have a direct influence 
in retarding the waste of tissue matter in the human 
frame, a single cup of the liquid prepared from a quarter 
ounce of coffee, containing from 1.5 to 1.9 grains of 
Caffeine in the infused state. The moderation of tissue 
waste attributed to coffee in common with other articles 
having the same general action and in use among 
different nations, is proven by various well-established 
facts. In its primary operation it agrees with those 
stimulants in exciting mental and muscular activity as 
well as cheerfulness, while in its after effects it does not 
tend to produce narcotism or stupor, only that unsteadi- 
ness of mind and of the spinal functions which denotes 
exhaustion. 

It has been the custom at frequently-recurring periods 
for moralists and scientists to claim that coffee is injuri- 
ous to the health of its votaries, and many coffee drink- 
ers believing such statements give up its use regretfully. 
That its use or rather its abuse may be injurious in some 
instances cannot be denied, but of all beverages now in 
use the facts and effects prove it to be the least injurious 
of any and all when not indulged in immoderately. 
Taken in moderation it is both a mental and physical 
stimulant of the most agreeable and pleasant nature, 
being followed by no harmful reaction. It produces con- 
tentment of mind, allays hunger and bodily weakness, 



276 MORAL INFLUENCE. 



increases the incentive and capacity for work, enabling 
those who use it in bounds to remain long without food 
or sleep, endure unusual fatigue, and preserve their cheer- 
fulness and composure, coffee-drinkers as a rule being 
generally cheerful, active and persevering. The truth 
is that coffee, if of a pure kind and properly prepared, 
is about the pleasantest and most innocuous stimu- 
lant that can be resorted to, particularly after a long 
worry or severe drain on the emotional or intellectual 
forces. So that if it could be but made to take the place 
of absinthe, champagne and other such beverages the 
coming race would be all the better intellectually and 
physically for it. Habitual coffee-drinkers generally 
enjoy good health, some of the longest-lived people 
have used it from their earliest infancy without apparent 
injury or depressing reaction, such as is invariably 
produced by alcoholic stimulants. The physiological 
action of coffee is directed chiefly to the nervous 
system, producing a warm, cordial feeling in the 
stomach, which is quickly followed by a well-diffused 
and agreeable nervous excitement extending itself to the 
cerebral functions, giving rise to increased vigor to the 
imagination and intellect without causing any subsequent 
stupor or confusion of ideas, such as are so characteristic 
of all other narcotics. It produces contentment of mind, 
allays hunger, mental and bodily weariness, increases the 
capacity for work, makes man forget his troubles and 
anxieties, enabling those who use it judiciously to endure 
unusual fatigue and remain a long time without food or 
sleep, as well as to preserve their temper and cheerful- 
ness. 

The influence which the introduction of coffee has 
exercised on modern morals is on account of its peculiar 
character, much easier to understand than to prove. We 



MORAL INFLUENCE. 2^7 



know that the discovery of gunpowder changed the entire 
art of war from the equipment of the individual soldier to the 
alignment of an entire army, and thus its influence became 
a palpable fact. But the changes in modern life effected 
by the introduction of coffee belong to the general and 
concealed springs of life ; to its motives, rather than to 
any circumscribed set of utterances regarding its facts, 
and an influence of this nature requires the application 
of a peculiar instrument in order to in a measure, calculate 
or even demonstrate it. A doctor may be perfectly correct 
in ascribing a fever to certain atmospheric conditions, 
but without thermometer, barometer or microscope, he 
can prove absolutely nothing. We may be perfectly 
certain then that the introduction of coffee has altered the. 
whole moral atmosphere in which we move, but without 
statistics we are unable to demonstrate the legitimacy or 
correctness of the assumption, and statistics is a scientific 
instrument of much later date than the introduction of 
coffee. 

Observations, however, which in some degree may 
be of some service in arriving at exact figures, are 
not altogether wanting. It cannot be contended that 
life has become more just and honest, which would be 
the legitimate result of a better education, but it is certain 
that it has become gentler, more uniform and pacific, 
two results which essentially depend on food and occu- 
pation. Nor can it be denied that it is the increasing 
demands of reason which awe, superstition, bigotry and 
narrow fanaticism out of our educational system, and not 
this system which spontaneously has endeavored to 
make everything else subservient to reason, and what 
thus is dimly or vaguely indicated by a general view of 
life, often becomes more striking in many individual 
instances. It is a hazardous, but nevertheless felicitous 



SyS MORAL INPLUfiNCE. 



expression, that "if Queen Elizabeth had breakfasted 
upon coffee and hot rolls, instead of beer and bacon, 
Queen Mary would never had been beheaded." We find 
in bygone ages a perversity of temper, an impetuosity of 
will, a violence of the passions which has led some moral- 
ists to consider the later generations of the human race 
as decreasing in vital force, while indeed the phenomenon 
might be explained as the single result of an over-stimu- 
lating and too exciting a diet and a lack of temperance. 
Let the people begin to indulge once again in drinking 
wine, ale or other intoxicating beverages at the morning 
meal instead of tea or coffee, and we will soon have the 
same amount of vital force back again. It is not the 
power of passion which has decreased, but the power 
of restriction which has increased, and a comprehensive 
consideration of historical facts seem to justify the con- 
clusion that this increased power of the reason is due as 
much to a more proper feeding of the body as to a better 
system of education. 

The mental exhilaration and physical activity and buoy- 
ancy which coffee causes explains the fondness which has 
been shown for it by so many men of science, poets, scholars 
and others devoted to writing or thinking at all times, 
and for which reason it has been styled the " intellectual 
beverage." Preachers, orators, editors and lawyers find- 
ing a cup of good coffee the gentlest, most harmless and 
effective of brain-bracers, but it does not appear to be 
generally known that nearly all men of literary habits 
who exhaust much nerve force use it constantly. It 
supported Voltaire in his old age and enabled Fontenelle 
to pass his hundred years. It was Voltaire who replied, 
on being informed by his physician "that coffee was a s'oiv 
poison,'^ " Yes, I know it is a vejy sloiv poison ; it has 
been poisoning me for over seventy years;" and Sydney 



MORAL tNFLUENCte. 279 



Smith who said, " If you want to improve your under- 
standing drink coffee; it is the intellectual beverage." 
Brady terming it " The sovereign drink of pleasure and of 
health," and Pope eulogizing it in the following lines ;— 



"From silver spouts the grateful liquors slide 
While China's earth receives the smoking tide, 
At once they gratify their sense and taste. 
And frequent cups prolong the rich repast ; 

Coffee ! which makes the politician wise 

And see through all things with half-shut eyes." 



Howells paying his tribute to it when he says, " This 
coffee intoxicates without exciting, soothes you softly 
out of dull sobriety, making you think and talk of 
all the pleasant things that ever happened to you." 
But times have changed since Voltaire, Diderot, Pope 
and others wrote and sang of coffee, jested, reasoned 
and made themselves immortal under its influence; 
alimentary and not literary is the modern cafe, though 
some can still boast of a clientele artistic, journalistic, or 
scientific, the commercial element preponderating, but the 
old historic cafe, the cafe of tradition, where one was 
sure to find some celebrity on exhibition — a poet or a 
philosopher — may be said to be defunct. 

From its cordial and gently stimulating effects we 
may well join in the enthusiastic panegyric pronounced 
on it by an Arabian of old, of which the following is 
a free, but condensed, translation: "O, coffee, thou dis- 
pellest the cares of the great and bringest back those 
who wander from the paths of knowledge ! Coffee is 
our gold, and in the place of its illusions we are in 
the enjoyment of the best and noblest society. Every 
care vanishes when the cup-bearer presents the delicious 



28o MORAL INFLUENCE. : 

chalice to our lips. It circulates freely through our 
veins and will not rankle there. Grief cannot exist 
where it grows and sorrow humbles itself before its 
powers." 

Vive la cafe ! 



OHAp^E>R :x. 



I*iCOI>XJOTIOP«f A.p»jr> 



rIFTY years ago a supply of 150,000 tons of all 
kinds of coffee was considered sufficient to meet 
the entire demand of Europe and America com- 
bined. In 1848, however, these two continents alone 
consumed upwards of 250,000 tons, which had increased 
in 1868 to 375,000 tons, and in 1888 to over 700,000 
tons, or more than double that of fifty years before. 

TABLE I. 

WORLD'S PRODUCTION (ESTIMATED). 

Countries. Weight in Tons. 

Liberia and all other Countries on the West 

Coast >f Africa, 19,500 

Abyssinia and all other Countries on the East 

Coast of Africa, 20,000 

Natal and Cape of Good Hope, 300 

Arabia, Bourbon and Mauritius, , 15,000 

British India and Ceylon, 30,500 

Java, Sumatra and Celebes, 60,000 

Bali, Timour and other Islands in the Malayan. 

Archipelago, 10,000 

Philippine, Fiji and Samoa Islands 11,000 

Sandwich and all other Islands in the South 

Pacific Ocean, 1,200 

Cuba and Porto Rico, 25,000 

Hayti and San Domingo, 15,000 

Jamaica and other Islands in the West Indies, . 18,000 

Mexico and Central America, 80,000 

Venezuela and Colombia, 50,000 

Equador and Bolivia, 15,000 

Brazil and other Countries in South America, . 500,000 

Grand total, 875,500 



282 Production and consumption. 

Or about 1,800,000,000 pounds per annum, the value 
of which averages over ^275,000,000 wholesale, according 
to its market price at time of sale. 

TABLE II. 

WORLD'S CONSUMPTION (ESTIMATED). 

Countries. Weight in Tons. 

Asia, '. . . 40,000 

Africa, 25,000 

Australia, 5,000 

Continent of Europe, 430,000 

Great Britain and Ireland, 15,000 

United States and Canada, ........ 275,000 

Mexico and Central America, 20,000 

West India Islands, 15,000 

Brazil and South American Countries, .... 40,000 

Total, 865,000 

Which shows that, in recent years, the world's supply 
has not kept pace with the growing demand throughc ut 
the civilized world. 

TABLE III. 

Showing the average annual consumption in the United States, 
imported principally as follows : — 

Country. Tons, Per Cent. 

Brazil, 150,000 75-oo 

Venezuela 20,000 5.00 

Mexico, 10,000 4.00 

Central America, 5,000 2.00 

West India Islands, 10,000 4.00 

India and Ceylon, 1,000 i.oo 

Arabia and Africa, 10,000 5.00 

Java and Sumatra, 10,000 4.00 

Total, 216,000 100.00 



PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION. 



TABLE IV. 

Showing where United States receives supphes of coffee from 
in general and the various kinds consumed :— 

Country. PoUnds. 

Africa, 25,000,000 

Arabia, 10,000,000 

England, 5,000,000 

Holland, 5,000,000 

Germany, 250,000 

Belgium, 80,000 

Portugal and Spain 150,000 

Brazil, 400,000,000 

Canada, 500 

Mexico, 10,000,000 

Venezuela, 35,000,000 

Colombia, 15,000,000 

Equador and Bolivia, ........ 1,000,000 

West India Islands, 5,000,000 

British and Dutch Guiana, 1,500,000 

Malayan Archipelago 25,000,000 

British India and Ceylon, 5,000,000 

Philippine and Pacific Islands, 10,000 

Sandwich and other Islands, 7 5,000 

Azores and Cape Verde Islands, 1,500 

French Possessions in Africa, Madagascar 

and Bourbon, 1,500 

Total importation, 600,000,000 

Total value, $80,000,000 

Which, according to the Bureau of Statistics, is about 
9 pounds /^r capita, valued at ^^1.15 per head, for every 
man, woman and child in the United States, while it has 
been ascertained that the consumption of coffee has 
declined in England in the past ten years to less than 
one pound per capita of the population as against an 
increase in the consumption of tea from 6 to 8 pounds. 



284 



PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION. 



TABLE V. 

Showing per capita consumption of the principal countries of 
the world in round numbers : — 

,, ^ . Consumption Per Capita 

<-°"°'"^^- (Pounds). (Pounds). 

Asia, 80,000,000 

Africa 50,000,000 i 

Australia, 10,000,000 2 

Austria, 10,000,000 1Y2 

Belgium, 50,000,000 10 

Denmark, 25,000,000 6 

France, 100,000,000 2j^ 

Germany, 180,000,000 5 

Greece, . 2,000,000 oy^ 

Holland, 70,000,000 14 

Italy, 30,000,000 I 

Switzerland, 20,000,000 5 

Russia and Siberia, 15,000,000 

Sweden and Norway 35,000,000 10 

Great Britain and Ireland, . . . 35,000,000 i 

United States and Canada, . . 600,000,000 6 

Mexico and Central America, . . 35,000,000 3 

West India Islands, 30,000,000 5 

South American States, . . . . 100,000,000 3 



What tea is to the United Kingdom coffee is to the 
United States, the consumption of the latter in this 
country increasing from 80,000,000 pounds in 1861 to 
116,000,000 in 1871, and to over 400,000,000 pounds in 
1 88 1, the consumption of coffee, at the present time in 
this country, falling just short of the enormous figures 
of 600,000,000 pounds. 

The use of coffee has been extending at an enormous 
rate for the past 150 years, until at the present day it 
is found in every civilized country and almost every un- 
civilized country on the habitable globe. It has become 



PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION. 285 

one of the corner-stones of civilization. As has been 
well said by one writer, it smoothes the troubled soul, 
heals all family feuds, fits one for the annoyances of 
business, and organizes a truce between the man who 
drinks it and all the troubles and cares of life. The 
United States is without doubt a nation of coffee- 
drinkers, the average annual consumption reaching up- 
wards of 600,000,000 pounds, or nearly ten pounds per 
capita of the entire population. 

Up to i860 there was a wide disparity between the 
production and consumption of coffee throughout the 
civilized world, the former remaining stationary while the 
latter continued to increase rapidly until the civil war, 
which caused a reduction in this country of nearly 200,000 
tons per annum, thus re-establishing the relative difference 
between the laws of supply and demand. With the close 
of the rebellion, the United States, however, and a 
reduction of the duty, the consumption again steadily 
increased, exceeding in a short time the increase in the 
production, causing a steady advance in prices from 1869 
to 1880, the extreme advance in prices in the latter year 
naturally stimulated and increased production until stocks 
accumulated largely and prices again declined accord- 
ingly. During the period from 1880-87, planters and 
dealers suffered greatly, many disastrous failures among 
both classes following as a consequence. The consump- 
tion meanwhile continued to increase steadily, as did also 
the production, owing to the yield of new plantations 
previously opened under the stimulus of the high prices 
prevailing in 1880, fair relations between the production 
and consumption being to the present maintained. 

The history of tariff legislation on coffee in the 
United States may be summed up in the following 
sequence : The first duty on coffee was levied in 1789, 



286 PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION. 

which was 2^^ cents per pound. In 1790 this was 
increased to 4 cents, and again to 5 cents in 1794, being 
retained at the latter figure until 181 2, when it was 
increased to 10 cents, owing to the increased expendi- 
tures of the government, due to the war with England. 
At the close of this war, in 18 14, the duty was reduced 
to 5 cents per pound, remaining at the latter figure until 
1828, when it was still further reduced to 2 cents ; in 
1830, to I cent, being removed altogether in 1832, and 
placed for the first time on the free list. No tax was 
again placed on coffee until the beginning of the civil 
war in 1861, when a duty of 4 cents per pound was 
levied on it, which was shortly after increased to 5 cents, 
at which figure it remained until 1871, when it was 
reduced to 3 cents, the duty being entirely removed 
from coffee in 1872, since which year it has remained 
uninterruptedly on the free list. 

During the years from 1832 to 1861, when coffee was 
entered free of duty, it ruled lower in price and increased 
more in consumption than it had at any previous period, 
the per capita consumption increasing from three pounds 
in 1830, to nearly six pounds in i860, the quantity 
imported into the United States in the latter year 
reaching nearly 236,000,000 pounds, being valued at 
^21,500,000, the three following years showing an 
average annual importation of about 220,600,000 pounds, 
valued at ;^2i,ooo,ooo. In 1855 fair Rio averaged it 
cents per pound; Maracaibo, 12 cents, and Java, 14)^ 
cents ; these being the three principal then in demand 
in the American market, while in i860 the range was 
considerably higher and the consumption correspond- 
ingly less, Rios averaging 13^4^ cents ; Maracaibos, 141^ 
cents; and Javas, 161^ cents. These prices continuing 
to advance until 1863-4, when the prices of coffee ruled 



PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION. 



287 



exceptionally high, owing to the war duty of 5 cents per 
pound; the figures averaging in 1863 31 cents for Rio, 
32 cents for Maracaibo, and 37 cents for Java, increasing 
in 1864 to 42^ cents for Rio, 43 cents for Maracaibo, 
and 49 Cents for Java. From 1864 to 1880, however, 
there was a steady decline in the prices of coffee, there 
being at the same time a correspondingly steady increase 
in its consumption. The prices ruling for the three leading 
kinds of coffee in the American market, from 1880 to 
1890, is as follows, per pound: — 



Year. 
880 
881 
882 



886 



890 



Rio. 








Maracaibo. 






Java. 


Cents. Cents. Cents. 


16 .... l6>^ ... . 23>^ 


\2}i 








13 






18 


9U 








10% . 






16 


loyi 








II 






I7K 


II 








iiX . 






leyz 


9 








loX . 






iS'A 


10 3,/ 








\o% . 






16^ 


8^ 








10 






16 


\(>yi 








16X . 






20 


'9 








20 






22 


18 








20 






22 



In many of the years from 1870 to 1880, Java, which 
is regarded as the standard coffee, sold less than Mara- 
caibo ; the latter frequently selling for less than Rio, 
which is considered the lowest in the scale during the 
same period. In 1875, however, the imports again in- 
creased to 300,000,000 pounds, valued at ^51,000,000. 
Taking the population in 1856 at 27,000,000 and in 1875 
at 42,000,000, it will be noticed that the increase in 
quantity of imports was only 34 per cent., 21 per cent, 
less than the increase of population for the same period, 
while the increase in value was 146 per cent, meantime. 
Figures which serve conclusively to prove that while 



PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION. 



low prices tend to increase consumption, high prices only 
serve to retard it. About 1883 new factors in the buying 
and selling of coffee appeared, coffee exchanges been 
opened in Havre, Hamburg and New York, which created 
large transactions in " options," some of them becoming 
enormous in their magnitude, and against which consider- 
able quantities of coffee must be held, the operations for 
future deliveries reaching as high as 22,000,000 bags in 
1887. This enormous increase in the transactions of 
that year was due entirely to a short crop report and to 
the active speculation based thereon. The continued 
increase in consumption and the increased demand for 
stocks held against the trading in options not being met 
by a corresponding increase in the production of the 
article, added to the serious injury to the crops in Java 
by leaf disease and in Brazil by blight, having still 
further disturbed the relations between the established 
laws of supply and demand. 



^vi*i*K^pij:i>ix:. 



TABLE I. 

Showing tares, style of package and average weight of the 
|jrin.cipal coffees imported into the United States. 





Style 


Average 




Kind. 


of 


Weight 


Tare. 




Package. 


Pounds. 




, Mocha, . . . 


Bales, . . 


i6o . . 


Actual. 


Javas, . . , 


Mats, . . 


66 . . 


I per cent. 


Irtdia, . . . 


Bags, . . 


140 . . 


2 per cent. 


Ceylon, , . , 


Bags, . . 


140 . . 


2 per cent. 


CeyLon, . , . 


Casks, . . 


1,000 . . 


Actual. 


famaica, , . 


Bags, . . 


200 . . 


2 per cent. 


Jamaica, . . 


Barrels, . 


200 . . 


Actual. 


San Domingo, 


Bags, . . 


150 . . 


2 per cent. 


Hayti, . . . 


Bags, . . . 


150 . . . 


2 per cent. 


Mexican, . . 


Bales, . . 


150 . . 


2 per cent. 


■Guatemala, 


Bags, . . 


140 . . 


r per cent. 


Nicaragua, . . 


Bags, . . 


140 . . 


I per cent. 


■Honduras, . . 


Bags, . . 


140 . . 


I per cent. 


'Costa Rica, 


Bags, . . 


140 . . 


I per cent. * 


Caracas, . . 


Bags, . . 


. 130 • • 


2 per cent. 


Maracaibo , 


Bags, . . 


130 . . 


I per cent. 


Laguayra, . . 


Bags, . . 


• 130 . • 


I per cent. 


Angostura, . . 


Bags, . . 


■ 130 • • 


. Actual. 


Colombo, . . 


Bags, . . 


230 . . 


I per cent. 


Equador, . . 


Bags, . . 


130 . . 


I per cent. 


Bolivian, . . 


Bags, . . 


• 130 • • 


I per cent. 


Brazilian, . . 


Bags, . . 


• 130 • • 


I per cent. 



All other coffees in hags one per cent, and all others in bales 
.and barrels actual tare. 



292 



APPENDIX. 



TABLE II. 

Showing relative difference between cost of raw and roasted 
coffees, including cost of roasting (yi cent per pound), and loss by- 
shrinkage (15 per cent). 



Roasted. 



12 
12 


35 
65 


12 


94 


13 


24 


13 
13 


53 
82 


14 


12 


14 


41 


14 


71 


15 


00 


15 


29 


15 
15 


59 

88 


16 


18 


16 
16 

17 


48 
67 
06 


17 
17 


35 
67 


17 
18 


94 

24 


18 
18 


53 

82 


19 


13 


19 


41 


19 


7t 


20 


00 


20 


30 


20 


59 



Raw. 

17^ 
18 
18J- 
18 J. 

i8f 

19 

I9i 

19^ 
19^ 



20.2 
20^ 

2X 

21-1 
2li 
21J 



Roasted.. 



O4 
23A 

-3t 

^41- 
24i 
24J 



20 89 



21 

21 

22 


47- 
76 
06 


22 
22 


35 
64- 


22 


93 


23 


22- 


23 
23 


52- 

82 


24 


41' 


24 


4E 


24 


7? 


25 


CO' 


25 


30 


25 
25 


59 

88. 


26 
26 
26 
27 


19 

47 
76. 
06 


27 

-/ 


3> 
64 


28 
28 

28 


94 
24 

53 
82 


29 


12 


29 


42 


29 


7J 


30 


00 



For each one-eighth of a cent Raw add one-fiiteenth Roasted.. 



APPENDIX. 



'■93 



TABLE III. 

Showing comparative loss in roasting coffee between Winter and 
Summer months of the principal coffees: — 



Momhs. 



Rio. 
Per cent. 



January, 14 

February 14 

March, 14 

June, 13 

[uly, ....".... 13 

August, . . ' 13 



Java. 
Per cent. 

16 
16 
16 
15 
15 
15 



]\I«cha. 
Per cent. 

15 
15 
15 

14 
14 
14 



Maracaibo. 
Per cent. 

16 

16 

16 

15 

15 

15 



From which it may be noted that Rio and Mocha lose on an 
average one per cent, less than Java and Maracaibo in both 
seasons, which is accounted for by the greater hardness and 
solidity of the bean of the former over the latter, which are lighter 
and softer in texture, the average loss being 15 per cent, on all 
coffees. 

TABLE IV. 

Showing comparative weights of Raw and Roasted coffees, after 
•sustaining a loss of from 12 to 16 per cent. : — 
Weight raw. Weight roasted. 

Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. 



Net. 



13 



14 



15 



16 



50 lbs. 44 


43* 


43 


42* 


42 


55 • 


4U 


48 


471 


46f 


46 


<6o ' 


52i 


52 


SH 


51 


SO^r 


'«5 ' 


57 


56* 


56 


55i 


54* 


70 ' 


61I 


61 


60 


59* 


58f 


• 75 ' 


66' 


65i 


64i- 


631- 


63 


:8o ' 


7oh 


69i 


68i 


68 


67 


S5 ' 


74f 


74" 


73 


72I 


71* 


90 ' 


79 


78t 


77k 


761 


75* 


95 ' 


83i 


82i 


81* 


8of 


79f 


500 ' 


89 


87 


86 


85 


84 


(105 ' 


92* 


914 


90I 


891 


88 


?IO ' 


96f 


95* 


94* 


93* 


9ii 


515 ' 


102 


100 


99 


98 


96* 


12a ' 


1 05 J 


io4i- 


103 


102 


lOI 


J25 ' 


no' 


io8| 


107* 


1061 


105 


530 ' 


114^, 


113 


112 


III 


I loi 


»35 ' 


ii8| 


ii7i 


116 


ii4f 


113* 


140 ' 


124 


I2lf 


I20i 


119 


117* 


145 ' 


i2yh 


126 


124* 


I23i- 


I2It 


150 ' 


i3'i 


I29f 


128-1- 


I26f 


I25i 



294 APPENDIX. 

TABLE V. 
Showings cost of Roasted coffee after sustaining a loss of: — 



ost Raw. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 




12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


lO 


Ilf 


"4 


I If 


Ilf 


114 


loj 


12 


12J 


I2I 


I2f 


'24- 


11 


124 


I2f 


I2f 


124 


13 


Ili 


13 


I3i 


I3f 


i3f- 


i3f 


12 


i3f 


i3f 


H 


144 


Hi 


12^ 


Hi 


Hi 


I4| 


Hi 


Hf 


13 


i4f 


15 


154 


i5f 


154- 


i3i 


151 


1 54 


i5t 


i5f 


154- 


H 


15I 


i6i 


i.6i 


164 


i6f 


Hi 


i6i 


i6| 


i6|- 


17 


i7f 


15 


17 


m 


i7f 


17-1 


174 


i5i 


i7f 


I7f 


18 


i8i 


i8i 


i6 


18J 


i8| 


i8f 


184 


19 


i6| 


i8f 


19 


194 


m 


i9f 


17 . 


•i9i 


^9i 


i9f 


20 


20i^ 


I7i 


19I 


20J 


20f 


20^ 


' 20^ 


i8 


20| 


204 


20|- 


214 


2Is 


i8i 


21 


2li 


214 


2lf 


22 


19 


2lf 


2I| 


224 


22| 


■ 22f 


I9i 


22i 


22f 


22f 


23 


23i 


20 


22f 


23 


23i 


234 


23I: 


20| 


23i 


2j2 


234 


244 


24f 


21 


23f 


24 


24f 


241^ 


25 


2li 


24i 


■ 24f 


25 


25i 


25t: 


22 


25 


-34 


25f 


254 


264. 


22J 


25-^- 


251 


264 


261 


26I 


23 


26i 


26I 


26f 


27 


27f 


-32 


26I 


27 


27f 


27I 


28 


24 


27i 


27t 


274 


28i 


28-1 


24i 


271 


281 


28I 


28i 


294 


25 


28f 


28I 


-294 


29f 


29-4- 



To which must be added cost of roasting, }y cent per pound. 



APPENDIX. 



295 



TABLE VI. 

Showing New York Coffee Exchange point card, and giving 
decimal value of 5 points to one cent per pound on 250 bags coffee 
(32,500 pounds), which is the smallest transaction : — 

Points. 



05. 
10, 

15. 

20, 

25. 
30. 

35. 
40, 

45. 
50. 
55. 
60, 

65. 

70, 

75, 
80, 

85. 
90, 

95> 
100 (one cent) 



Diflference. 


Points. 




• $16 


25 


105. . 




32 


50 


I 10, . 




. 48 


75 


115. • 




• 65 


00 


120, . 




81 


25 


125, 




97 


50 


130, 




■ 113 


75 


135. 




130 


00 


140, 




146 


25 


H5> 




162 


50 


150, 




• 178 75 


150, 




• 195 


00 


155. 




211 


25 


160, 




. 227 


50 


165, 




. 243 75 


170, 




260 


GO 


175. 




. 276 


25 


180, 




292 


50 


185. 




. 308 


75 


190, 




). 325 


00 


195, 








200 (two 



cents), 



Difference. 


$341 


25 


357 


50 


373 


75 


390 


10 


406 


25 


432 


50 


438 75 


455 


50 


471 


25 


487 


50 


487 


50 


503 


75 


520 


00 


536 


25 


552 


50 


568 


75 


585 


00 


601 


25 


617 


50 


635 


75 


650 


50 



No. 7 (low ordinary) is adopted as the "standard grade," and 
is taken as a basis for all operations, but a grade comparing with 
any of the ten numbers may be substituted at their approximate 
values when delivered is insisted on and No. 7 cannot be had. 
The brokerage for buying and selling is 4 cents per bag, and the 
original margin ^i.co per bag, the smallest transaction allowed 
being 250 bags and the market fluctuation j{}y cents per pound. 



296' 



APPENDIX. 



TABLE VII. 
Showing method for converting Rio and Santos quotations into 
United States currency, including freight charges at 40 cents and 
5 per cent, per bag marine insurance. One month's charges in 
New York, at 2 per cent, discount, ^4.80, equaling the pound 
sterling at 60 days sight. 



arket Price in 






iio Rates of Exchange on London 


(eqiiiva 


lent in cen 


Rio per pound). 


10 Kilos. i\d ■zi%d lid 


.000 .. . \T.^^^ . . . I2t^ . . . I2xVi7 


.200 






I2/A 






I2i|fV 






1-^TWiJ 


.400 






I -1 01 
^JTT)<7 






'SAiT 






^JTfh 


.600 






^3^% 






i3t^ 






U^% 


.800 






13/t^ 






H^% 






hA^ 


.000 






^4# 






14^(7 






I c OS 


.200 






Ht%% 






^Sitk 






iSfVo 


.400 






IC 27 






^6^ 






iSr% 


.600 






1 5 tVK 






i^^% 






^6^% 


.800 






16^0^ 






16^ 






'Hw 


.000 






i6A% 






^7j% 






^7^1S^^^ 



Fractional equivalents to be added if necessary, each }^d. in 
exchange being equivalent to about i per cent. Bases for freight 
differences to be added or deducted at rate of 5 cents and 5 per 
cent, per bag — .04 cents per pound, to which must be also added 
commission for buying in Rio or Santos, but if the coffee should 
be wanted for sale on the Exchange no addition need be made. 



TABLE VIII. 
For converting London quotations into U. S. currency, includ- 
ing cost, insurance, freight, one month's chai'ges in New York and 
2 per cent, discount. 



Market Price in London 
per 112 pounds. 
Shillings. 

50 . 

51 • 

- 52 . 

53 • 

54 • 

55 • 

56 . 

57 • 

58 . 

59 • 



Londc 

1$4 So 

III 4: 



Rates of Exchange at 60 days, equivalent in cents 
per pound. 



II 63 

11 89 

12 II 

12 34 
12 53 

12 73 

13 02 
13 23 

13 48 



$i 83 

$11 54 

11 78 

12 00 
12 23 
12 46 

' 12 69 

12 91 

13 14 
13 38 

1360 



J4 90 

III 65 

11 89 

12 12 
12 35 
12 58 

12 81 

13 04 
13 27 
13 51 

13 75 



APPENDIX. 297 



The best and most rapid method of reducing the cost of coffee 
in Brazil to United States currency is, however, to multiply the 
price by the rate of exchange ruling at the time of purchase. The 
result will be in English pence, which is converted into Amer- 
ican gold in the regular way at the existing rate of London ex- 
change. Another method by which a result accurate enough for 
all practical purposes may be obtained is to multiply the price by 
the rate of exchange, and then deducting one-fourth of the amount 
so obtained, first getting the free-on-board charges in Rio or 
Santos, to which must be added the cost of freight and other 
charges. 

TABLE IX. 

Showing the average value for each year from 1846 to 1878, 
inclusive, for fair to prime Rio coffee, cargo price in gold, " in 
bond," in New York: — 

Year. Value. Year. Value. Year. Value. Year. Value. 

1846 . -.44 1857 . I I.I 5 1868 . 10.5 1879 • H-87 

1847 . 7.34 1858 . 11.08 1869 . ii.co 1880 . 15.12 

1848 . 6.63 1859 • 11-66 1870 . 11.33 1881 . 12.23 

1849 . 7.37 i860 ■ 13.74 1871 . 12.91 1882 . 9.77 

1850 . 10.91 1861 . 12.31 1872 . if If 1883 . 10.36 

1851 . 9.44 1862 . 15.22 1873 • 19-99 1S84 . 10.92 

1852 . 8.85 1863 . 16.39 1874 . 21.08 1885 . 9.01 

1853 . 9.76 1864 . 16.22 1875 • 18.87 1886 . 10.33 

1854 . 10.48 1865 . 15.95 1876 . 18.21 

1855 . 10.47 1866 . 13.86 1877 . 18.45 

1856 . 11.04 1867.. 12.23 1878 . 15.58 

Coffee was admitted free up to the first of August, 1861, when 
an import duty of four cents a pound was levied. In January, 
1862, the duty was raised to five cents a pound; and this con- 
tinued to 1870, Avhen the duty was reduced to three cents a pound. 
On the first of July, 1872, the impost was removed, and coffee was 
admitted to duty free once more. In the above table, it will be 
observed that the highest point was in 1874, after the impost had 
been removed, when it was 21 cents. This was about the same 
as in 1S63 and '64, with the duty of 5 cents added; but this, it 
will be remembered, is an average for the years alluded to for 
fair to prime, but during the year there was often fluctuations, and 
prime, as circumstances demanded, brought a very high price, as 
in some instances it touched at or near 25 cents, when of course all 
other coffees were proportionally large. 



298 



appe:ndix. 



TABLE X. 



ShoAving fluctuations in tl 


inclusive. 




Year. 


Pounds. 


1850 . 


131,640,000 


185I . 


177,760,000 


1852 . 


291,344,000 


1853 . . 


172,898,000 


1854 . 


175,780,000 


1855 . 


206,250,000 


1856 . 


214,104,000 


1857 . 


168,916,000 


1858 . 


246,510,000 


1859 • 


219,010,000 


i860 . 


173,844,000 


1861 . 


194,656,000 


1862 . 


87,406,000 


1863 . 


78,562,000 


1864 . 


107,052,900 


1865 . 


125,708,000 


1866 . 


157,146,000 


1867 . 


. 199,760,000 



Ye.^r. 


Pounds. 


1868 . 


219,212,400 


1869 . 


238,653,800' 


1S70 . 


275,895,400 


187I . 


310,956,800' 


1872 . 


266,866,600 


1873 • 


264,666,600' 


1874 . 


272,608,600 


1875 . 


301,727,800 


1876 . 


295,039,800 


1877 . 


297,523,600- 


1878 . 


213,830,000 


1879 • 


396,391,600' 


1880 . 


390,188,500' 


1881 . 


411,633,200' 


1882 •. 


467,504,400 


1883 . 


449,002,400 


1884 . 


490,468,000 


1885 . 


530,127,400 



It will be seen that the consumjDtion increased to 185S, and 
gradually declined to 1863, when it touched the lowest point. 
Since that time it has increased nearly seven-fold, but while 
the quantity imported or consumed has increased beyond our 
power to fully realize the amount in figures, it is curious to con- 
sider the varied values of coffee under the many peculiarities of 
circumstances for the past thirty-si.x years. 



APPENDIX. 



299^ 



TABLE XI. 

SHOWING HOW COFFEE IS IMPORTED. 

Pro Forma Invoice of 1,000 Bags of Coffee, of 60 Kilos, each,. 
Shipped from Rio de Janeiro or Santos to ike United States. 



1,000 bags coffee of 60 kilos, each 
=net kilos. 60,000, @, 6^350 
per 10 kilos., *Rs. 38:ioo$ooo 



1,000 empty bags (d^ 700 reis, . 



700S000 



Export duty on kilos. 60,000 @ 502 
rs. per kilo.=Rs. 30,i20$ooo 
@ 13 per cent., Reis 3:91 5$6oo 



Rs. 38:8oo$ooO' 



Harbor-master (Capatazias) fees, 
60 rs. per bag 

Brokerage, 50 rs. per bag, . . . 

Shipping expenses (at 220 rs. = Rs. 
220,000), sample, tins and box 
(Rs. 25^000), freight on same 
(Rs. 2$ooo), consul's certifi- 
cate (included in sample, tins, 
etc.), cablegram (Rs. loo^ooo), 
stamps, petties, etc. (included 
in sample, tins and box), . . 



Commission for buying, 2 per cent., 



bo§5ooo 

5o$ooo 



347S000 



4:372$6oo- 



43:i72$6oo 
863$45a 



44:0361050 
Bill brokerage and stamps, fi of i per cent.,. . . 1651760 



Reis 44:2oi;?8io- 



1,000 reis^i mil-nes^54j^ cents, U. S. 



APPENDIX. 



TABLE XII. 

SHOWING CONVERSION OF BRAZILIAN INTO AMERICAN 
CURRENCY. 

Amount of pro forma invoice, . . . Reis 44:201 $810 
At 21 >^d. exchange at Rio, . . . ^3.959 ^5 
$4.84;^ — ^'^ per / sterling $19,161 00 

Charges accruing in the United States : — 

Freight per steamer to New York, 40c. per 

bag and 5 per cent, primage 542o 00 

Marine insurance, i per cent, less 30 per 
cent. — ^ net, on $2i,6j2 or invoice and £ 
value @ $5.50, 151 70 

Banker's commission for credit^^^' of i per 

cent, on $19,161, . 143 72 

Bill stamps in London (nil). 

Labor at vessel, 4c. per bag ; storage, one 
month, @ 4c. ; weighing, 3Xc- ; fire in- 
surance, i^c- per bag; delivery (lighter- 
age), 4c. per bag=i6^'4c. per bag, . , . 165 00 

Petty charges, z. e., sampling, sewing, custom 
fees, etc., on bags, per bag, 3>'2C. ; approx- 
imate for skimming of quality, bags 

@ ; furnishing new bags, 35 00 

Cables at New York, ......... 5 00 

920 42 



Cost of 1,000 in store, |20,o8l 42 



Description of Modern Machinery for Handling 
Coffee from Tree to TaWe. 



In the preparation of what is known in the market as 
unwashed coffee, after the cherry coffee has been picked 
from the tree it is spread out on " patios " or terraces 
where it is dried in the sun ; but as this process is subject 
to the changes of weather and much labor is required 
attending to it, artificial dryers have been devised, with 
which a cofTee-planter is enabled to harvest his crop 
without loss. When the coffee in the " cherry " has been 
thoroughly dried it is run through a hulling and polish- 
ing machine, of which the accompanying is an illustra- 
tion. The machine is manufactured by the Fraser Manu- 
facturing Co., of New York city. 




C5orM?M3:Ej mji_ivE:i« ^=v:Nrr> r»oiL,i®MEM«. 



MODERN MACHINERY. 



In the above machine the coffee " cherries " are fed 
into the hopper whence they go through the hulling 
part in which the hulls and parchment are gently de- 
tached from the berries. Thence the hulls, parchment 
and coffee fall into the polishing cylinder where the hulls, 
parchment and silver skin are rubbed off and the coffee 
is polished absolutely clean. The small hulls and parch- 
ment drop through the perforations in the cylinder into 
the trough below, the cleaned coffee being discharged at 
the tail end of the cylinder along with the large hulls 
.and parchment, which are detached from the berries, 
where all fall into a suction trunk and the fan separates 
all hulls and parchment from the coffee, depositing all 
bad material into a hopper which is a part of the machine. 
The cleaned coffee as known to commerce comes out at 
the tail end of the machine. 

" Washed coffee " is prepared in a different manner. 
After the cherry coffee is picked from the tree it is 
immediately run through the pulper and washer along 
with a stream of water where the pulp and glutinous 
matter are removed, leaving the coffee in the parchment 
when it has to be dried in the sun or in an artificial 
dryer, after which it is ready to be run through the 
machine known as the huUer and polisher, above men- 
tioned, which removes the parchment and silver skin 
and separates them from the good berries. 

While either the washed or the unwashed coffee after 
passing through the huller and polisher is salable in the 
market there is still an opportunity open to the coffee- 
planter to further enhance its v^alue by running it 
through a separator and cleaner, an illustration of 
which machine is here shown. 



MODERN MACHINERY 



3°3 







In the above machine five screens of perforated metal, 
all with differently-sized holes, can be used at one time 
for classifying or grading the several sizes of berry. The 
coffee passes from the feed hopper to the top screen, 
which is generally a screen with large holes which allows 
all the coffee to pass through it and the large sticks and 
other large foreign matter to pass over the end of the 
screen into the spout at the front of the machine and 
thence into a box or other receptacle. A sheet-iron 
apron below the screen carries the coffee to the beginning 
of the next screen, and the remaining four screens classify 
or grade the coffee into large flats, peaberry, medium flats 
and small flats. These four grades then fall into four 
separate suction trunks at the back of the machine, 
where an exhaust fan operates with different power on 
each grade, removing from the coffee the light sticks, 
lighter black beans and quaker beans ; in fact, everything 
which is lighter in weight than each grade of good coffee. 



304 iMODERN ]SIACHINERV, 



After the coffee has been passed through this machine it 
is perfectly cleaned and graded and brings the highest 
possible price in the market. 

In order to save time and labor on a plantation bucket 
elevators are used, which convey the coffee from the 
ground to the top of a machine. A bucket elevator is 
an apparatus consisting of an endless belt running round 
two pulleys, one of them being at the top and the other 
at the bottom of the apparatus. On this endless belt 
there are fastened a number of small tin cups, and as 
these come round to the ground where the coffee is they 
pick it up and carry it to the head of the apparatus to 
any desired elevation, and from the head of the apparatus 
the coffee falls by gravitation to a machine. 

A great many coffees come to market imperfectly 
cleaned and graded, and they cannot be roasted nicely 
unless they are previously cleaned in the green state. 
The wholesale jobber and manufacturer, in order to 
handle such coffees, have in operation in their mills such 
machines as a milling or scouring machine and a sepa- 
rator and cleaner. The scouring machine consists of the 
polishing cylinder of the huller and polisher. The jobbers 
and manufacturers materially enhance the value of such 
coffees by running them through these machines. 
' Coffee nowadays is sold by both the green and roasted 
samples ; that is, if anyone has a lot of coffee to sell he 
must place before the intending purchaser both a sample 
of it in its green state and a sample of it in its roasted 
state. In order to do this the sellers of coffee have in 
their offices a small sample coffee-roaster which will roast 
from one to three pounds in from five to ten minutes. 
Single sample roasters are manufactured to be turned by 
hand, and they are also made in batteries of any number 
desired to be turned by steam or electric power. 



MODERN JMACHINERY. 305 

Coffee is roasted for commercial purposes by the 
wholesale manufacturer in a large cylinder, generally six 
feet long, made of sheet steel, which is perforated with 
numerous holes, and inside of it there are fastened to 
the shell a number of cast iron flights, or conveying 
shelves, which keep the coffee in motion from one end 
of the cylinder to the other, and causes it to be roasted 
evenly and brightly. The cylinder rests on a front and 
back plate of cast iron, and revolves in a furnace of 
brick over a hot fire. The green coffee is fed into the 
hopper of the roaster at the front of the machine while 
the cylinder is in motion, and during the operation of 
roasting the operator can, by means of a " tryer," take 
from the cylinder a small sample of the coffee, so that 
he can at any time tell by the sample at what stage the 
coffee is in the c)'linder. When the coffee is sufficiently 
roasted the operator opens the discharge-door at the 
front of the machine, and every grain of coffee is there 
discharged from the cylinder while it is in motion. One 
of the best roasters in the market is the XL Roaster, 
manufactured by the Fraser Manufacturing Co., of New 
York city, a picture of which is now shown. 



jo6 



MODERN MACHINERY. 




TMEJ :x:rv COI^I^EjE^-BeOA.»TEJI«. 



Until recently there was no good coffee-roaster in the 
market for the use of the retail grocers- and the retail 
coffee merchants. A great many retailers have tried to 
roast their own coffee, but without success, in cheap 
roasters resembling ovens which arc found in the 
market. The result of their doing so is that they have 
only been able to offer to their customers a very uneven 
and poorly-roasted coffee, some beans being properl)^ 
roasted and others not. The accompanying picture 
illustrates a machine in which they can roast their own 
coffee as well as the large manufacturers do in the large 
roasters. It will be observed that in design it is similar 
to the large roaster used by the wholesale manufacturers. 



MODERN MACHINERY. 



307 




'Thie: 3j:ju iPorei*A.:Brvi3 rcoA.fi^'TEj^. 



When the roasted coffee is discharged from the roaster 
it is very hot, and in order to preserve its color, it must 
be cooled very quickly. The quicker it is cooled the 
better it is. Formerly, the roasted coffee was cooled by 
dashing water over it and stirring it about in a box. 
The modern way, however, of cooling the roasted coffee 
is to allow it to drop from the roaster into a box, which 
is made of sheet steel and has a false bottom of perforated 
steel. This box with the roasted coffee in it is con- 
nected with an exhaust fan which exhausts the heat 
from the coffee, and. cools it in a few minutes. The 
illustration here shown will explain how the coffee is 
cooled by this method, and how, also, the stones are 
removed from it. 



3oS 



MODERN MACHINERY, 




COOIvIiVGr 3BO:x:, «T0IVI3IC .A.iVI> J^Xi' 



The great majority of coffees have mixed in them a 
number of stones, nails, etc. These are removed from 
the coffee after it is roasted and cooled by means of a 
stoning apparatus. The exhaust fan draws the roasted 
coffee up through a telescopic elevating pipe by means 
of wind suction to a galvanized iron hopper which is 
hung from the ceiling. The wind suction is regulated 
very nicely by means of a gate in the pipe so that it is 
only strong enough to draw up the roasted coffee and 
leave behind in the box the stones and nails, and every- 
thing that is heavier than the coffee. From the galvan- 
ized iron hopper the coffee runs by gravitation into a 
bag, barrel or other receptacle. 

After the coffee has been roasted, cooled and stoned, 
some manufacturers apply a glazing material to it for the 
purpose of closing the pores of the bean and preserving 
its strength and aroma, thus allowing it to be kept fresh 
for a long time. This glazing material is applied to the 
coffee in a cylinder, and after the coffee is covered with 



MODERN MACHINERY. 309 

the glazing material it requires to be dried by heated air 
in an artificial dryer. 

Roasted coffee is ground by the wholesale manufac- 
turer, by the retailer, and also by the consumer. Many 
differently constructed mills are used for this purpose. 
Some consumers wish to have the coffee coarsely granu- 
lated; others desire to have it finely granulated, while 
others require to have it very finely pulverized. After 
being ground it is ready for the coffee-pot, and thence it 
is served in the cup. 



Joseph M. Walsh 



IMPORTER OF 




PHILRDELPHIR, U. S. H. 



LE D '08 







i 

i 
1 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 








UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 


t 



'^l 



